1.
Multilingualism
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Multilingualism is the use of two or more languages, either by an individual speaker or by a community of speakers. It is believed that multilingual speakers outnumber monolingual speakers in the worlds population, more than half of all Europeans claim to speak at least one other language in addition to their mother tongue. Multilingualism is becoming a social phenomenon governed by the needs of globalization, people who speak several languages are also called polyglots. Multilingual speakers have acquired and maintained at least one language during childhood, the first language is acquired without formal education, by mechanisms heavily disputed. Children acquiring two languages in this way are called simultaneous bilinguals, even in the case of simultaneous bilinguals, one language usually dominates the other. People who know more than one language have been reported to be adept at language learning compared to monolinguals. Multilingualism in computing can be considered part of a continuum between internationalization and localization, the definition of multilingualism is a subject of debate in the very same way as the definition of language fluency. On one end of a sort of continuum, one may define multilingualism as complete competence. The speaker would presumably have complete knowledge and control over the language so as to sound native, on the opposite end of the spectrum would be people who know enough phrases to get around as a tourist using the alternate language. Since 1992, Vivian Cook has argued that most multilingual speakers fall somewhere between minimal and maximal definitions, in addition, there is no consistent definition of what constitutes a distinct language. For instance, scholars disagree whether Scots is a language in its own right or a dialect of English. Many small independent nations schoolchildren are today compelled to learn multiple languages because of international interactions, for example, in, all children are required to learn at least two foreign languages, the other national language and one alien language. Many Finnish schoolchildren also select further languages, such as German or Russian, in some large nations with multiple languages, such as India, school children may routinely learn multiple languages based on where they reside in the country. In major metropolitan areas of Central, South and East India, thus a child of Telugu parents living in Bangalore will end up speaking his or her mother tongue at home and the state language, Hindi and English in school and his or her surroundings. Many myths and much prejudice has grown around the notions of bi- and these are all harmful convictions which have long been debunked, yet still persist among many parents. A multilingual person is someone who can communicate in more than one language, more specifically, the terms bilingual and trilingual are used to describe comparable situations in which two or three languages are involved. A multilingual person is referred to as a polyglot. Multilingual speakers have acquired and maintained at least one language during childhood, the first language is acquired without formal education, by mechanisms heavily disputed
2.
Oath Inc.
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Weblogs, Inc. is a blog network of about 90 blogs, covering a variety of subjects, from computers and gaming to the likes of food and independent film. Roughly half of these blogs are updated and maintained. Weblogs, Inc. was founded in September 2003 and has been owned by AOL since October 2005, Weblogs, Inc. was founded by Brian Alvey and Jason Calacanis with an investment from Mark Cuban. The company was founded in the wake of Calacanis Silicon Alley Reporter magazine, by early 2004, Weblogs, Inc. and Gawker Media were establishing the two most important templates for networked blog empires. At that time, Weblogs, Inc. consisted of a few dozen blogs designed for professional readership, the exception was Engadget, a stand-alone site covering new technology in blog format. Engadget was co-founded by Peter Rojas, the editor of Gizmodo in the Gawker Media network. At the start of 2006,26 stand-alone sites populated the network, a few of the company principals maintain personal blogs in the blogroll, and the home page is maintained in blog format. Entrepreneur Mark Cuban, an investor in the company, keeps his personal weblog on the Weblogs. At the start of 2006, the structure consisted of an executive and administrative team of eight individuals, including the aforementioned Calacanis, Alvey. Thirty-two lead bloggers edited content channels or stand-alone sites, and managed topic-specific staffs of bloggers, the network sells an inventory of display advertising space supplemented by Google AdSense. Revenue from AdSense alone was claimed to be approaching US$1,000,000 per year, Weblogs, Inc. was purchased in October 2005 by AOL for a reported $25 million. While details were sketchy, it was reported in Blogebrity, The Blog that the bloggers would maintain all their rights, Weblogs, Inc. would be operated as an independent AOL-owned company. Launched in March 2004, Engadget is updated multiple times a day with articles on gadgets, although Engadget appears to be a weblog, it is really a webzine. Joystiq was a weblog covering video games and video game culture. It was shut down on February 3,2015 and its links redirect to Engadget, founded in September 2004, Hack a Day is a weblog covering hacks, mods, and projects popular among computer enthusiasts. It was not included in the sale of Weblogs, Inc to AOL, TV Squad is a television weblog founded on March 10,2005. By 2006, it was one of the most popular on the internet, TV Squad was originally conceptualized to allow any Weblogs, Inc. blogger to write about the television shows they watch. Eventually, a group of bloggers for the site was realized, with several other Weblogs
3.
Verizon Communications
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The company is based at 1095 Avenue of the Americas in Midtown Manhattan, New York City, but is incorporated in Delaware. Bell Atlantic came into existence in 1984 with a footprint from New Jersey to Virginia, as part of the rebranding that the Baby Bells took in the mid-1990s, all of the operating companies assumed the Bell Atlantic name. In 1997, Bell Atlantic expanded into New York and the New England states by merging with fellow Baby Bell NYNEX, although Bell Atlantic was the surviving company, the merged company moved its headquarters from Philadelphia to NYNEXs old headquarters in New York City. In 2000, Bell Atlantic merged with GTE, which operated telecommunications companies across most of the rest of the country that was not already in Bell Atlantics footprint, Bell Atlantic, the surviving company, changed its name to Verizon, a portmanteau of veritas and horizon. As of 2016, Verizon is one of three companies that had their roots in the former Baby Bells, the other two, like Verizon, exist as a result of mergers among fellow former Baby Bell members. One, SBC Communications, bought out its former parent AT&T Corporation, the other, CenturyLink, was formed initially in 2011 by the acquisition of Qwest. Bell Atlantic Corporation was created as one of the original Regional Bell Operating Companies in 1984, in 1994, Bell Atlantic became the first RBOC to entirely drop the original names of its original operating companies. In 1996, CEO and Chairman Raymond W. Smith orchestrated Bell Atlantics merger with NYNEX, when it merged, it moved its corporate headquarters from Philadelphia to New York City. NYNEX was consolidated into this name by 1997, the approval came with 25 stipulations to preserve competition between local phone carriers, including investing in new markets and broadband technologies. The new venture was headed by co-CEOs Charles Lee, formerly the CEO of GTE, upon its inception, Verizon became the largest local telephone company in the United States, operating 63 million telephone lines in 40 states. The company also inherited 25 million mobile phone customers, additionally, Verizon offered internet services and long-distance calling in New York, before expanding long-distance operations to other states. The name Verizon derives from the combination of the words veritas, Latin for truth, the name was chosen from 8,500 candidates and the company spent $300 million on marketing the new brand. The companies established Verizon Wireless as its own business operated by Bell Atlantic, Vodafone retained 45% of the company. The deal was valued at approximately $70 billion and created a mobile carrier with 23 million customers, Verizon Wireless merged Bell Atlantics wireless network, Vodafones AirTouch and PrimeCo holdings, and the wireless division of GTE. Due to its size, Verizon Wireless was able to offer national coverage at competitive rates, in another partnership with MSN in 2002, Verizon Wireless launched the mobile content service VZW with MSN and a phone that utilized the Microsoft Windows operating system. In August 2000, approximately 85,000 Verizon workers went on an 18-day labor strike after their contracts expired. The strike affected quarterly revenues, resulting in Verizon Wireless postponement of the companys IPO, Verizon launched 3G service in 2002, which doubled the Internet speeds of the time to 144kb a second. In August 2002, Verizon began offering local, long-distance, and mobile calling, as well as Internet service and it was initially only available to customers in New York and Massachusetts
4.
Alexa Internet
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Alexa Internet, Inc. is a California-based company that provides commercial web traffic data and analytics. It is an owned subsidiary of Amazon. com. Founded as an independent company in 1996, Alexa was acquired by Amazon in 1999 and its toolbar collects data on browsing behavior and transmits them to the Alexa website, where they are stored and analyzed. This is the basis for the web traffic reporting. According to its website, Alexa provides traffic data, global rankings, as of 2015, its website has been visited by over 6.5 million people monthly. Alexa Internet was founded in April 1996 by American web entrepreneurs Brewster Kahle, Alexa initially offered a toolbar that gave Internet users suggestions on where to go next, based on the traffic patterns of its user community. The company also offered context for each site visited, to whom it was registered, how many pages it had, how other sites pointed to it. Alexas operations grew to include archiving of web pages as they are crawled and this database served as the basis for the creation of the Internet Archive accessible through the Wayback Machine. In 1998, the company donated a copy of the archive, Alexa continues to supply the Internet Archive with Web crawls. In 1999, as the company moved away from its vision of providing an intelligent search engine. Alexa began a partnership with Google in early 2002, and with the web directory DMOZ in January 2003, in May 2006, replaced Google with Bing as a provider of search results. In December 2006, Amazon released Alexa Image Search, built in-house, it was the first major application built on the companys Web platform. In December 2005, Alexa opened its extensive search index and Web-crawling facilities to third-party programs through a set of Web services. These could be used, for instance, to construct vertical search engines that could run on Alexas own servers or elsewhere. In May 2007, Alexa changed their API to limit comparisons to three websites, reduce the size of embedded graphs in Flash, and add mandatory embedded BritePic advertisements. In April 2007, the company filed a lawsuit, Alexa v. Hornbaker, in the lawsuit, Alexa alleged that Ron Hornbaker was stealing traffic graphs for profit, and that the primary purpose of his site was to display graphs that were generated by Alexas servers. Hornbaker removed the term Alexa from his name on March 19,2007. Thereafter, Alexa became a purely analytics-focused company, on March 31,2009, Alexa launched a major website redesign
5.
Registered user
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A registered user is a user of a website, program, or other system who has previously registered. Registered users normally provide some sort of credentials to the system in order to prove their identity, systems intended for use by the general public often allow any user to register simply by selecting a register or sign up function and providing these credentials for the first time. Registered users may be granted privileges beyond those granted to unregistered users, user registration and login enables a system to personalize itself. For example, a website might display a welcome banner with the users name, a system could even sell information it has gathered on its users to third parties for advertising or other purposes. Depending on the nature of the system, a user might not have any way of knowing for certain exactly what information is stored, how it is used, the subject of systems transparency in this regard is one of ongoing debate. Registration may also be seen as an annoyance or hindrance, especially if it is not inherently necessary or important or if the system repeatedly prompts users to register. A systems registration process might also be time-consuming or require that the user provide information they might be reluctant to, such as a home address or social security number
6.
Email
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Electronic mail, or email, is a method of exchanging digital messages between people using digital devices such as computers and mobile phones. Email first entered use in the 1960s and by the mid-1970s had taken the form now recognized as email. Email operates across computer networks, which today is primarily the Internet, some early email systems required the author and the recipient to both be online at the same time, in common with instant messaging. Todays email systems are based on a store-and-forward model, Email servers accept, forward, deliver, and store messages. Originally an ASCII text-only communications medium, Internet email was extended by Multipurpose Internet Mail Extensions to carry text in character sets. International email, with internationalized email addresses using UTF-8, has been standardized, the history of modern Internet email services reaches back to the early ARPANET, with standards for encoding email messages published as early as 1973. An email message sent in the early 1970s looks very similar to an email sent today. Email played an important part in creating the Internet, and the conversion from ARPANET to the Internet in the early 1980s produced the core of the current services, historically, the term electronic mail was used generically for any electronic document transmission. For example, several writers in the early 1970s used the term to describe fax document transmission, as a result, it is difficult to find the first citation for the use of the term with the more specific meaning it has today. This spelling also appears in most dictionaries, Mail was the form used in the original protocol standard, RFC524. The service is referred to as mail, and a piece of electronic mail is called a message. EMail is a form that has been used in RFCs for the Authors Address and is expressly required for historical reasons. E-mail is sometimes used, capitalizing the initial E as in similar abbreviations like E-piano, E-guitar, A-bomb, by 1968, AUTODIN linked more than 300 sites in several countries. With the introduction of MITs Compatible Time-Sharing System in 1961, multiple users could log in to a system from remote dial-up terminals. Informal methods of using this to pass messages were developed and expanded,1965 – MITs CTSS MAIL and it used the Unix mail client to send messages between system users. The concept was extended to communicate remotely over the Berkeley Network,1979 – EMAIL, an application written by Shiva Ayyadurai for the University of Medicine and Dentistry of New Jersey. 1979 – MH Message Handling System developed at RAND provided several tools for managing electronic mail on Unix, most of them only allowed communication between users logged into the same host or mainframe, although there might be hundreds or thousands of users within an organization. In the early 1980s, networked personal computers on LANs became increasingly important, server-based systems similar to the earlier mainframe systems were developed
7.
Yahoo!
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Yahoo Inc. is an American multinational technology company headquartered in Sunnyvale, California. Yahoo was founded by Jerry Yang and David Filo in January 1994 and was incorporated on March 2,1995, Yahoo was one of the pioneers of the early internet era in the 1990s. Marissa Mayer, a former Google executive, Google Employee number 20 and it is globally known for its Web portal, search engine Yahoo. Search, and related services, including Yahoo, answers, advertising, online mapping, video sharing, fantasy sports, and its social media website. It is one of the most popular sites in the United States, according to news sources, roughly 700 million people visit Yahoo websites every month. Yahoo itself claims it attracts more than half a billion consumers every month in more than 30 languages, in January 1994 Yang and Filo were electrical engineering graduate students at Stanford University, when they created a website named Jerry and Davids guide to the World Wide Web. The site was a directory of websites, organized in a hierarchy. In March 1994, Jerry and Davids Guide to the World Wide Web was renamed Yahoo, the yahoo. com domain was created on January 18,1995. The word yahoo is a backronym for Yet Another Hierarchically Organized Oracle or Yet Another Hierarchical Officious Oracle, the term hierarchical described how the Yahoo database was arranged in layers of subcategories. However, Filo and Yang insist they mainly selected the name because they liked the definition of a yahoo, rude, unsophisticated. This meaning derives from the Yahoo race of beings from Gullivers Travels. Yahoo grew rapidly throughout the 1990s, like many search engines and web directories, Yahoo added a web portal. By 1998, Yahoo was the most popular starting point for web users and it also made many high-profile acquisitions. Its stock price skyrocketed during the bubble, Yahoo stocks closing at an all-time high of $118.75 a share on January 3,2000. However, after the bubble burst, it reached a post-bubble low of $8.11 on September 26,2001. Yahoo began using Google for search in 2000, over the next four years, it developed its own search technologies, which it began using in 2004. In response to Googles Gmail, Yahoo began to offer unlimited email storage in 2007, the company struggled through 2008, with several large layoffs. In February 2008, Microsoft Corporation made a bid to acquire Yahoo for $44.6 billion
8.
Facebook
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Facebook is an American for-profit corporation and an online social media and social networking service based in Menlo Park, California. Facebook gradually added support for students at other universities. Since 2006, anyone age 13 and older has been allowed to become a user of Facebook, though variations exist in the minimum age requirement. The Facebook name comes from the face book directories often given to United States university students, Facebook may be accessed by a large range of desktops, laptops, tablet computers, and smartphones over the Internet and mobile networks. After registering to use the site, users can create a user profile indicating their name, occupation, schools attended and so on. Additionally, users may join common-interest user groups organized by workplace, school, hobbies or other topics, in groups, editors can pin posts to top. Additionally, users can complain about or block unpleasant people, because of the large volume of data that users submit to the service, Facebook has come under scrutiny for its privacy policies. Facebook makes most of its revenue from advertisements which appear onscreen, Facebook, Inc. held its initial public offering in February 2012, and began selling stock to the public three months later, reaching an original peak market capitalization of $104 billion. On July 13,2015, Facebook became the fastest company in the Standard & Poors 500 Index to reach a market cap of $250 billion, Facebook has more than 1.86 billion monthly active users as of December 31,2016. As of April 2016, Facebook was the most popular social networking site in the world, Facebook classifies users from the ages of 13 to 18 as minors and therefore sets their profiles to share content with friends only. Zuckerberg wrote a program called Facemash on October 28,2003 while attending Harvard University as a sophomore, to accomplish this, Zuckerberg hacked into protected areas of Harvards computer network and copied private dormitory ID images. Facemash attracted 450 visitors and 22,000 photo-views in its first four hours online, the site was quickly forwarded to several campus group list-servers, but was shut down a few days later by the Harvard administration. Zuckerberg faced expulsion and was charged by the administration with breach of security, violating copyrights, Zuckerberg expanded on this initial project that semester by creating a social study tool ahead of an art history final exam. He uploaded 500 Augustan images to a website, each of which was featured with a corresponding comments section and he shared the site with his classmates, and people started sharing notes. The following semester, Zuckerberg began writing code for a new website in January 2004 and he said that he was inspired by an editorial about the Facemash incident in The Harvard Crimson. On February 4,2004, Zuckerberg launched Thefacebook, originally located at thefacebook. com. com and they claimed that he was instead using their ideas to build a competing product. The three complained to The Harvard Crimson and the newspaper began an investigation and they later filed a lawsuit against Zuckerberg, subsequently settling in 2008 for 1.2 million shares. Membership was initially restricted to students of Harvard College, within the first month, eduardo Saverin, Dustin Moskovitz, Andrew McCollum, and Chris Hughes joined Zuckerberg to help promote the website
9.
Simple Mail Transfer Protocol
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Simple Mail Transfer Protocol is an Internet standard for electronic mail transmission. First defined by RFC821 in 1982, it was last updated in 2008 with Extended SMTP additions by RFC5321, for retrieving messages, client applications usually use either IMAP or POP3. SMTP communication between mail servers uses TCP port 25, Mail clients on the other hand, often submit the outgoing emails to a mail server on port 587. Despite being deprecated, mail providers sometimes still permit the use of nonstandard port 465 for this purpose, SMTP connections secured by SSL, known as SMTPS, can be made using STARTTLS. Various forms of electronic messaging were used in the 1960s. People communicated with one another using systems developed for specific mainframe computers, as more computers were interconnected, especially in the US Governments ARPANET, standards were developed to allow users of different systems to email one another. SMTP grew out of these standards developed during the 1970s, fewer than 50 hosts were connected to the ARPANET at this time. Further implementations include FTP Mail and Mail Protocol, both from 1973, development work continued throughout the 1970s, until the ARPANET transitioned into the modern Internet around 1980. Jon Postel then proposed a Mail Transfer Protocol in 1980 that began to remove the reliance on FTP. SMTP was published as RFC788 in November 1981, also by Postel, the SMTP standard was developed around the same time as Usenet, a one-to-many communication network with some similarities. SMTP became widely used in the early 1980s, at the time, it was a complement to Unix to Unix Copy Program mail, which was better suited for handling email transfers between machines that were intermittently connected. SMTP, on the hand, works best when both the sending and receiving machines are connected to the network all the time. Both use a store and forward mechanism and are examples of push technology, though Usenets newsgroups are still propagated with UUCP between servers, UUCP as a mail transport has virtually disappeared along with the bang paths it used as message routing headers. Sendmail, released with 4. 1cBSD, right after RFC788, was one of the first mail transfer agents to implement SMTP, over time, as BSD Unix became the most popular operating system on the Internet, sendmail became the most common MTA. Some other popular SMTP server programs include Postfix, qmail, Novell GroupWise, Exim, Novell NetMail, Microsoft Exchange Server, Message submission and SMTP-AUTH were introduced in 1998 and 1999, both describing new trends in email delivery. Originally, SMTP servers were typically internal to an organization, receiving mail for the organization from the outside and this behavior is helpful when the message being fixed is an initial submission, but dangerous and harmful when the message originated elsewhere and is being relayed. Cleanly separating mail into submission and relay was seen as a way to permit, as spam became more prevalent, it was also seen as a way to provide authorization for mail being sent out from an organization, as well as traceability. This separation of relay and submission quickly became a foundation for modern email security practices, as this protocol started out purely ASCII text-based, it did not deal well with binary files, or characters in many non-English languages
10.
Domain name
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A domain name is an identification string that defines a realm of administrative autonomy, authority or control within the Internet. Domain names are formed by the rules and procedures of the Domain Name System, any name registered in the DNS is a domain name. Domain names are used in various networking contexts and application-specific naming and addressing purposes, in 2015,294 million domain names had been registered. Domain names are organized in levels of the DNS root domain. The registration of domain names is usually administered by domain name registrars who sell their services to the public. A fully qualified domain name is a name that is completely specified with all labels in the hierarchy of the DNS. A domain name may represent entire collections of resources or individual instances. Individual Internet host computers use domain names as host identifiers, also called host names, the term host name is also used for the leaf labels in the domain name system, usually without further subordinate domain name space. Host names appear as a component in Uniform Resource Locators for Internet resources such as web sites, Domain names are also used as simple identification labels to indicate ownership or control of a resource. Such examples are the realm identifiers used in the Session Initiation Protocol, the Domain Keys used to verify DNS domains in e-mail systems, an important function of domain names is to provide easily recognizable and memorizable names to numerically addressed Internet resources. This abstraction allows any resource to be moved to a different physical location in the topology of the network. Such a move usually requires changing the IP address of a resource, Domain names are used to establish a unique identity. Organizations can choose a name that corresponds to their name. A generic domain is a name that defines a category, rather than a specific or personal instance, for example. Some examples of names are books. com, music. com. Companies have created brands based on names, and such generic domain names may be valuable. The use of names in commerce may subject them to trademark law. The practice of using a simple memorable abstraction of a hosts numerical address on a computer network dates back to the ARPANET era, before the advent of todays commercial Internet
11.
FreePOPs
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FreePOPs is an extensible mail proxy that allows checking and downloading of e-mail from webmails using any conventional POP3 client program, avoiding the need to use a Web browser. It can also be used as an aggregator for RSS feeds, the application retrieves messages from various accounts without manual login through an http page. FreePOPs is a POP3 daemon with a Lua interpreter and some extra libraries for HTTP, most plugins work by screen scraping the target website
12.
Yahoo! Messenger
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Messenger is an advertisement-supported instant messaging client and associated protocol provided by Yahoo. Yahoo also offers PC-PC, PC-Phone and Phone-to-PC service, file transfers, webcam hosting, text messaging service, Yahoo Messenger was originally launched under the name Yahoo. In addition to instant messaging features similar to those offered by ICQ, it offers features such as, IMVironments, address-book integration. It was also the first major IM client to feature BUZZing, another recently added feature is customized avatars. Yahoo Messenger also allows users to access Yahoo Chat Rooms, as of December 14,2012, all public chat rooms on Yahoo Messenger have been shut down as part of a series of features being changed/added/deleted. As of March 27,2016, the only supported clients are the Android, iOS and web browser clients. The legacy Windows, Mac, Linux and Solaris clients are not supported anymore, on April 12,2016, Yahoo announced that the messenger would support six non-English languages to bridge the language gap and create personalised experiences for its users. Yahoo Messenger will support Hindi, Chinese, French, German, Spanish, a new desktop app for Windows and Mac has been released. As of January 2014, the iOS version supports voice calls, the Android version supports voice & video calls. Yahoo added voicemail and file sending capabilities to anyone, file-sharing of sizes up to 2GB was added to Yahoo Messenger. As of 8.0, Yahoo Messenger has added the ability for users to create plug-ins, Yahoo now no longer provides plugin development SDK. Yahoo Messenger users can listen to free and paid Internet radio services, the plug-in also player functionality, such as play, pause, skip and rate this song. As of September 2016, Yahoo Messenger no longer offers webcam service on their computer application, yahoos software now allows users with the most current updated versions to utilize its webcam service. This option enables users from all over the world to view others who have installed a webcam on their end. The service is free with provided speeds averaging from a range in between 1 and 2 frames per second, the resolution of the images can be seen starting at 320 x 240 pixels or 160 x 120. Optic Nerve takes an image from the webcam stream every 5 minutes. Yahoo Messengers installation process automatically installs an extra uniform resource identifier scheme handler for the Yahoo, Messenger Protocol into some web browsers, so that URIs beginning ymsgr can open a new Yahoo Messenger window with specified parameters. This is similar in function to the mailto URI scheme, which creates a new e-mail message using the default mail program
13.
Four11
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Four11. com was a company that developed an Internet white pages directory for locating email addresses and collaborating using Internet phones, and videophones. It also developed RocketMail, one of the first major, free webmail services, for a brief time, RocketMail battled with Hotmail for the number-one spot among free webmail services. Four11, including RocketMail, was acquired by Yahoo. on October 8,1997 for $92 million and used the RocketMail engine to create Yahoo
14.
RocketMail
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RocketMail was one of the first major, free webmail services. The service was originally a product of Four11 Corporation, for a brief time, RocketMail battled with Hotmail for the number-one spot among free webmail services. Four11, including RocketMail, was acquired by Yahoo. in 1997 for $92 million, mail was essentially the old RocketMail Webmail system. At the time of the transition, RocketMail users could choose a Yahoo. ID, since they were not guaranteed the availability of their RocketMail ID on Yahoo. or could use username. rm as their Yahoo, thus, they were able to keep their rocketmail. com address and receive the same services as all Yahoo. In April,2013, Yahoo closed support for creating new Rocketmail email addresses, existing Rocketmail accounts were not affected
15.
Gmail
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Gmail is a free, advertising-supported email service developed by Google. Users can access Gmail on the web and through the apps for Android and iOS. Gmail started as a beta release on April 1,2004. It exited beta status on July 7,2009, Gmail at launch had an initial storage capacity offer of 1 gigabyte per user, a significantly higher number than the 2 megabytes of storage its competitors such as Hotmail offered at that time. Today, the service comes with 15 gigabytes of free storage, users can receive emails up to 50 megabytes in size, including attachments, while they can send emails up to 25 megabytes. In order to send files, users can insert files from Google Drive into the message. Gmail has an interface and a conversation view similar to an Internet forum. Gmail is noted by web developers for its use of Ajax. Googles mail servers automatically scan emails for multiple purposes, including to add context-sensitive advertisements next to emails, Google has been the subject of lawsuits concerning the issues, both from Gmail users and from non-Gmail users. Google also claims that Gmail refrains from displaying ads next to potentially sensitive messages, such as those that mention race, religion, sexual orientation, health, or financial statements. As of February 2016, Gmail has one billion active users worldwide, according to a 2014 estimate, 60% of mid-sized US companies, and 92% of startups, were using Gmail. On April 1,2004, Gmail was launched with 1 gigabyte of storage space, on April 1,2005, the first anniversary of Gmail, the limit was doubled to 2 gigabytes of storage. Georges Harik, the product management director for Gmail, stated that Google would keep giving people more space forever, on April 24,2012, Google announced the increase of free storage in Gmail from 7.5 to 10 gigabytes as part of the launch of Google Drive. On May 13,2013, Google announced the merge of storage across Gmail, Google Drive. Users can buy additional storage, shared among Gmail, Google Drive and Google Photos, as of 2017, storage of up to 15 gigabytes is free, and paid plans are available for up to 30 terabytes for personal use. There are also limits to individual Gmail messages. One message, including all attachments, cannot be larger than 25 megabytes and this was changed in March 2017, to allow receiving of email up to 50 megabytes, with the limit for sending email staying at 25 megabytes. In order to send files, users can insert files from Google Drive into the message
16.
Email spam
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Email spam, also known as junk email, is a type of electronic spam where unsolicited messages are sent by email. Spam email may also include malware as scripts or other executable file attachments, Spam is named after Spam luncheon meat by way of a Monty Python sketch in which Spam in the sketch is ubiquitous, unavoidable and repetitive. Email spam has steadily grown since the early 1990s, botnets, networks of virus-infected computers, are used to send about 80% of spam. Since the expense of the spam is borne mostly by the recipient, the legal status of spam varies from one jurisdiction to another. In the United States, spam was declared to be legal by the CAN-SPAM Act of 2003 provided the message adheres to rules set by the Act and by the FTC. ISPs have attempted to recover the cost of spam through lawsuits against spammers, spammers collect email addresses from chatrooms, websites, customer lists, newsgroups, and viruses that harvest users address books. These collected email addresses are also sold to other spammers. The proportion of spam email was around 80% of email messages sent, from the beginning of the Internet, sending of junk email has been prohibited. Gary Thuerk sent the first email spam message in 1978 to 600 people and he was reprimanded and told not to do it again. The ban on spam is enforced by the Terms of Service/Acceptable Use Policy of internet service providers and it was estimated in 2009 that spam cost businesses around US$130 billion. As the scale of the problem has grown, ISPs and the public have turned to government for relief from spam. Spam has several definitions varying by source, Unsolicited bulk email —unsolicited email, sent in large quantities. Unsolicited commercial email —this more restrictive definition is used by regulators whose mandate is to regulate commerce, many spam emails contain URLs to a website or websites. According to a Cyberoam report in 2014, there are an average of 54 billion spam messages sent every day, pharmaceutical products jumped up 45% from last quarter’s analysis, leading this quarter’s spam pack. Emails purporting to offer jobs with fast, easy cash come in at two, accounting for approximately 15% of all spam email. And, rounding off at number three are spam emails about diet products, accounting for approximately 1%, according to information compiled by Commtouch Software Ltd. email spam for the first quarter of 2010 can be broken down as follows. Advance fee fraud spam, such as the Nigerian 419 scam, organized spam gangs operate from sites set up by the Russian mafia, with turf battles and revenge killings sometimes resulting. Spam is also a medium for fraudsters to scam users into entering personal information on fake Web sites using emails forged to look like they are from banks or other organizations, such as PayPal
17.
ECMAScript
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ECMAScript is a trademarked scripting-language specification standardized by the European Computer Manufacturers Association in ECMA-262 and ISO/IEC16262. It was created to standardize JavaScript, so as to multiple independent implementations. JavaScript has remained the best-known implementation of ECMAScript since the standard was first published, coders commonly use ECMAScript for client-side scripting on the World Wide Web, and it is increasingly being used for writing server applications and services using Node. js. The ECMAScript specification is a specification of a scripting language developed by Brendan Eich of Netscape, initially it was named Mocha, later LiveScript. In December 1995, Sun Microsystems and Netscape announced JavaScript in a press release, in March 1996, Netscape Navigator 2.0 was released, featuring support for JavaScript. Owing to the success of JavaScript as a client-side scripting language for Web pages, Microsoft developed a compatible dialect of the language. JScript added new date methods to alleviate the Year 2000 problem caused by the JavaScript methods that were based on the javaDate class, JScript was included in Internet Explorer 3.0, released in August 1996. Netscape delivered JavaScript to Ecma International for standardization and the work on the specification, ECMA-262, the first edition of ECMA-262 was adopted by the Ecma General Assembly in June 1997. Several editions of the standard have been published since then. The name ECMAScript was a compromise between the involved in standardizing the language, especially Netscape and Microsoft, whose disputes dominated the early standards sessions. Eich commented that ECMAScript was always a trade name that sounds as a skin disease. While both JavaScript and JScript aim to be compatible with ECMAScript, they provide additional features not described in the ECMA specifications. There are seven editions of ECMA-262 published, work on version 7 of the standard, was finalized in June 2016. In June 2004, Ecma International published ECMA-357 standard, defining an extension to ECMAScript, Ecma also defined a Compact Profile for ECMAScript – known as ES-CP, or ECMA327 – that was designed for resource-constrained devices, which was withdrawn in 2015. The proposed fourth edition of ECMA-262 would have been the first major update to ECMAScript since the edition was published in 1999. The specification was originally targeted for completion by October 2008, an overview of the language was released by the working group on October 23,2007. By August 2008, the ECMAScript 4th edition proposal had been scaled back into a project codenamed ECMAScript Harmony, the intent of these features was partly to better support programming in the large, and to allow sacrificing some of the scripts ability to be dynamic to improve performance. For example, Tamarin – the virtual machine for ActionScript developed, in addition to introducing new features, some ES3 bugs were proposed to be fixed in edition 4
18.
HTML
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Hypertext Markup Language is the standard markup language for creating web pages and web applications. With Cascading Style Sheets and JavaScript it forms a triad of cornerstone technologies for the World Wide Web, Web browsers receive HTML documents from a webserver or from local storage and render them into multimedia web pages. HTML describes the structure of a web page semantically and originally included cues for the appearance of the document, HTML elements are the building blocks of HTML pages. With HTML constructs, images and other objects, such as interactive forms and it provides a means to create structured documents by denoting structural semantics for text such as headings, paragraphs, lists, links, quotes and other items. HTML elements are delineated by tags, written using angle brackets, tags such as <img /> and <input /> introduce content into the page directly. Include explicit close tags for elements that permit content but are left empty, by carefully following the W3Cs compatibility guidelines, a user agent should be able to interpret the document equally as HTML or XHTML. For documents that are XHTML1.0 and have made compatible in this way. When delivered as XHTML, browsers should use an XML parser, HTML4 defined three different versions of the language, Strict, Transitional and Frameset. The Transitional and Frameset versions allow for presentational markup, which is omitted in the Strict version, instead, cascading style sheets are encouraged to improve the presentation of HTML documents. Because XHTML1 only defines an XML syntax for the language defined by HTML4, as this list demonstrates, the loose versions of the specification are maintained for legacy support. However, contrary to popular misconceptions, the move to XHTML does not imply a removal of this legacy support, rather the X in XML stands for extensible and the W3C is modularizing the entire specification and opening it up to independent extensions. The primary achievement in the move from XHTML1.0 to XHTML1.1 is the modularization of the entire specification, the strict version of HTML is deployed in XHTML1.1 through a set of modular extensions to the base XHTML1.1 specification. Likewise, someone looking for the loose or frameset specifications will find similar extended XHTML1.1 support, the modularization also allows for separate features to develop on their own timetable. So for example, XHTML1.1 will allow quicker migration to emerging XML standards such as MathML, in summary, the HTML4 specification primarily reined in all the various HTML implementations into a single clearly written specification based on SGML. XHTML1.0, ported this specification, as is, next, XHTML1.1 takes advantage of the extensible nature of XML and modularizes the whole specification. XHTML2.0 was intended to be the first step in adding new features to the specification in a standards-body-based approach. The WHATWG considers their work as living standard HTML for what constitutes the state of the art in major browser implementations by Apple, Google, Mozilla, Opera, hTML5 is specified by the HTML Working Group of the W3C following the W3C process. HTML lacks some of the found in earlier hypertext systems, such as source tracking, fat links
19.
Reporters Without Borders
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Reporters Without Borders, or Reporters Sans Frontières, is an international non-profit, non-governmental organization that promotes and defends freedom of information and freedom of the press. The organization, with an office in Paris, France, has consultant status at the United Nations. Reporters Without Borders was founded in 1985 by Robert Ménard, Rémy Loury, Jacques Molénat and Émilien Jubineau, in Montpellier and its head office is in the 2nd arrondissement of Paris. RWB also maintains offices in Berlin, Brussels, Geneva, Madrid, Rome, Stockholm, Tunis, Vienna, at first, the association worked to promote alternative journalism, but there were disagreements between the founders. Finally, only Ménard stayed and he changed the direction towards promoting freedom of the press. Ménard was RWBs first Secretary General, jean-François Julliard succeeded Ménard in 2008. Christophe Deloire succeeded Julliard in July 2012 when he became Director General, Reporters Without Borders primary means of direct action are appeals to government authorities through letters or petitions, as well as frequent press releases. Through its world-wide network of roughly 150 correspondents, RWB gathers information, if necessary, it will send a team of its own to assess working conditions for journalists in a specific country. It releases annual reports on countries as well as the Press Freedom Index, RWB also provides assistance for journalists and media who are either in danger or are having difficulty subsisting. 2013, received the Freedom of Speech Award from the International Association of Press Clubs,2012, received the Club Internacional de Prensa Award, in Madrid. 2009, shared the Roland Berger Human Dignity Award with Iranian human rights lawyer,2009, received the Médaille Charlemagne for European Media. 2008, received the Kahlil Gibran Award for Institutional Excellence from the Arab American Institute Foundation,2007, received the Asia Democracy and Human Rights Award from Taiwan Foundation for Democracy and the Dawit Isaak Prize from Swedish Publicists Association. 2006, received an International Emmy Award from the International Academy of Television Arts,2005, shared the European Parliaments Sakharov Prize for Freedom of Thought with Nigerian human rights lawyer Hauwa Ibrahim and Cubas Ladies in White movement. 1997, received the Journalism and Democracy Prize from the Parliament Assembly of the Organization for Security,1992, received the Lorenzo Natali Prize from the European Commission for defending human rights and democracy. Reporters Without Borders issues press releases, fact finding reports, and it publishes periodic mission reports on developments in individual countries or regions or on a specific topic. Each December it publishes an overview of events related to freedom of information. It maintains a web site accessible in six languages, RWB compiles and publishes an annual ranking of countries based upon the organizations assessment of their press freedom records. Small countries, such as Andorra, are excluded from this report, the survey asks questions about direct attacks on journalists and the media as well as other indirect sources of pressure against the free press
20.
United States Congress
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The United States Congress is the bicameral legislature of the federal government of the United States consisting of two chambers, the Senate and the House of Representatives. The Congress meets in the Capitol in Washington, D. C, both senators and representatives are chosen through direct election, though vacancies in the Senate may be filled by a gubernatorial appointment. Members are usually affiliated to the Republican Party or to the Democratic Party, Congress has 535 voting members,435 Representatives and 100 Senators. The House of Representatives has six non-voting members in addition to its 435 voting members and these members can, however, sit on congressional committees and introduce legislation. Puerto Rico, American Samoa, Guam, the Northern Mariana Islands, the members of the House of Representatives serve two-year terms representing the people of a single constituency, known as a district. Congressional districts are apportioned to states by using the United States Census results. Each state, regardless of population or size, has two senators, currently, there are 100 senators representing the 50 states. Each senator is elected at-large in their state for a term, with terms staggered. The House and Senate are equal partners in the legislative process—legislation cannot be enacted without the consent of both chambers, however, the Constitution grants each chamber some unique powers. The Senate ratifies treaties and approves presidential appointments while the House initiates revenue-raising bills, the House initiates impeachment cases, while the Senate decides impeachment cases. A two-thirds vote of the Senate is required before a person can be forcibly removed from office. The term Congress can also refer to a meeting of the legislature. A Congress covers two years, the current one, the 115th Congress, began on January 3,2017, the Congress starts and ends on the third day of January of every odd-numbered year. Members of the Senate are referred to as senators, members of the House of Representatives are referred to as representatives, congressmen, or congresswomen. One analyst argues that it is not a solely reactive institution but has played a role in shaping government policy and is extraordinarily sensitive to public pressure. Several academics described Congress, Congress reflects us in all our strengths, Congress is the governments most representative body. Congress is essentially charged with reconciling our many points of view on the public policy issues of the day. —Smith, Roberts, and Wielen Congress is constantly changing and is constantly in flux, most incumbents seek re-election, and their historical likelihood of winning subsequent elections exceeds 90 percent
21.
Jerry Yang
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Jerry Chih-Yuan Yang, born November 6,1968 in Chinese Taipei) is an American Internet entrepreneur and programmer. In 1978, his mother moved the family to San Jose, California, after coming to the US Yang took the American name Jerry, his mother Lily, and his brother Ken. He says that he knew one English word, shoe, when he came to America. Yang earned both a Bachelor of Science and a Master of Science in electrical engineering from Stanford University in four years, Yang founded Yahoo. in 1994, served as CEO from 2007 to 2009. He founded a venture firm called AME Cloud Ventures and, as of 2015. According to Rob Solomon, a venture capitalist at Accel Partners, Yang was a founder, evangelist, strategist and mentor. While studying at Stanford in 1994, Yang and David Filo co-created an Internet website called Jerry and Davids Guide to the World Wide Web, as it grew in popularity they renamed it Yahoo. Inc. Yahoo. received around 100,000 unique visitors by the fall of 1994, in April 1995, Yahoo. received a $2 million investment from Sequoia Capital, Tim Koogle was hired as CEO, and Yang and Filo were each appointed Chief Yahoo. Yahoo. received a round of funding in the Fall 1995 from Reuters. It went public in April 1996 with 49 employees, in 1999, Yang was named to the MIT Technology Review TR100 as one of the top 100 innovators in the world under the age of 35. Yang met Alibaba founder Jack Ma in 1997 during Yangs first trip to China, Ma, a government-employed tour guide and former English teacher, gave Yang a tour of the Great Wall of China. The two hit it off and discussed the growth of the Web, Ma created Alibaba several months later. A1997 photo of Yang and Ma at the Great Wall still hangs on the wall in Alibabas Hangzhou office. In 2005, under Yangs direction but before he took over as CEO in 2007, in 2012, Yahoo. sold a portion of its stake in Alibaba for $7.6 billion. The company made an additional $9.4 billion in Alibabas 2014 IPO, in fall 2005, a month after the Alibaba investment, news broke that Yahoo. had cooperated with Chinese authorities in the arrest of Chinese journalist Shi Tao in November 2004. Yahoo. provided the Chinese security agencies with the IP addresses of the senders, the recipients, Shi was subsequently convicted for divulging state secrets abroad. Yang justified the action, stating, To be doing business in China or anywhere else in the world, Yang and Yahoo. were heavily criticized, and Reporters Without Borders called Yahoo. In early November 2007, Yang faced questions from a Congressional committee with respect to Yahoo. s role in the arrests of Tao, during the hearings he apologized to Taos mother, who was also at the hearing
22.
House Foreign Affairs Committee
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Representative Ed Royce of California is the Chairman of the House Foreign Affairs Committee, and has been so since January 2013. From 1975 to 1978 and from 1995 to 2007, it was renamed the Committee on International Relations, in January 2007, it changed back to its original name. Its jurisdiction is and was the same under both names,52 List of current United States House of Representatives committees U. S. House Committee on Foreign Affairs
23.
Tom Lantos
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Lantos had announced in early January 2008 that he would not run for reelection because of cancer of the esophagus, but died before finishing his term. A Hungarian-American, Lantos was the only Holocaust survivor to have served in the United States Congress, in speaking before the House of Representatives after his death, House Speaker Nancy Pelosi stated that Lantos devoted his public life to shining a bright light on the dark corners of oppression. He used his voice to stir the consciousness of world leaders. U2 lead singer Bono called him a prizefighter, whose stamina would make him go any amount of rounds, with anyone, anywhere, to human rights. In 2008, after his death, the Congressional Human Rights Caucus and its mission is partly to promote, defend and advocate internationally recognized human rights. In 2011, the Tom Lantos Institute was set up in Budapest to promote tolerance and support minority issues in central and eastern Europe and in the world. Lantos was born Lantos Tamás Péter into a Jewish family in Budapest, Hungary, the son of Anna, a school teacher of English, and Pal Lantos. His family was involved in education and included an uncle who was a professor at the University of Budapest. His life in Hungary would change after the Third Reich annexing of Austria in 1938, Lantos remembered this period and a newspaper headline he read when he was only 10, Hitler Marches into Austria. Even at an age, he understood the significance of this invasion, I sensed that this historic moment would have a tremendous impact on the lives of Hungarian Jews, my family. Six years later, in March 1944, the German military invaded Hungary and occupied Budapest, as he was Jewish, Lantos, then 16, was arrested and sent to a forced labor camp outside of Budapest. He escaped but was caught by the Germans and beaten severely. He again escaped but this made his way back to Budapest,40 miles away. There, he hid with an aunt in a house set up by Raoul Wallenberg. In January 1945, less than a later, Russian military forces fought door-to-door battles. Wallenberg, for his part, was credited with saving the lives of thousands of other Hungarian Jews. Lantos described some of his experiences in the Academy Award-winning documentary film, The Last Days, in his floor speeches as a congressman, he sometimes referred to himself as one of the few living members of Congress who had fought against fascism. In 1981, Lantos sponsored a bill making Wallenberg an Honorary Citizen of the United States, in January 2006, he traveled to Hungary and attended a ceremony commemorating the 61st anniversary of the liberation of the Budapest Ghetto
24.
Allah
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Allah is the Arabic word for God in Abrahamic religions. In the English language, the word refers to God in Islam. The word is thought to be derived by contraction from al-ilāh, which means the god, and is related to El and Elohim, the word Allah has been used by Arabic people of different religions since pre-Islamic times. More specifically, it has used as a term for God by Muslims. It is now used by Muslims and Arab Christians to refer to God. It is also often, albeit not exclusively, used in this way by Bábists, Baháís, Indonesian and Maltese Christians, similar usage by Christians and Sikhs in West Malaysia has recently led to political and legal controversies. The etymology of the word Allāh has been discussed extensively by classical Arab philologists, grammarians of the Basra school regarded is as either formed spontaneously or as the definite form of lāh. The majority of modern scholars subscribe to the theory. Cognates of the name Allāh exist in other Semitic languages, including Hebrew, the corresponding Aramaic form is Elah, but its emphatic state is Elaha. It is written as ܐܠܗܐ in Biblical Aramaic and ܐܲܠܵܗܵܐ in Syriac as used by the Assyrian Church, Biblical Hebrew mostly uses the plural form Elohim, but more rarely it also uses the singular form Eloah. Regional variants of the word Allah occur in both pagan and Christian pre-Islamic inscriptions, different theories have been proposed regarding the role of Allah in pre-Islamic polytheistic cults. Some authors have suggested that polytheistic Arabs used the name as a reference to a god or a supreme deity of their pantheon. The term may have been vague in the Meccan religion, according to one hypothesis, which goes back to Julius Wellhausen, Allah was a designation that consecrated the superiority of Hubal over the other gods. However, there is evidence that Allah and Hubal were two distinct deities. Some inscriptions seem to indicate the use of Allah as a name of a polytheist deity centuries earlier, some scholars have suggested that Allah may have represented a remote creator god who was gradually eclipsed by more particularized local deities. There is disagreement on whether Allah played a role in the Meccan religious cult. No iconic representation of Allah is known to have existed, muhammads fathers name was ʿAbd-Allāh meaning the slave of Allāh. The Aramaic word for God in the language of Assyrian Christians is ʼĔlāhā, arabic-speakers of all Abrahamic faiths, including Christians and Jews, use the word Allah to mean God
25.
Phishing
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The word is a neologism created as a homophone of fishing due to the similarity of using a bait in an attempt to catch a victim. According to the 3rd Microsoft Computing Safer Index Report released in February 2014, communications purporting to be from social web sites, auction sites, banks, online payment processors or IT administrators are often used to lure victims. Phishing emails may contain links to websites that are infected with malware, Phishing is an example of social engineering techniques used to deceive users, and exploits weaknesses in current web security. Attempts to deal with the number of reported phishing incidents include legislation, user training, public awareness. Phishing attempts directed at individuals or companies have been termed spear phishing. Attackers may gather information about their target to increase their probability of success. This technique is, by far, the most successful on the internet today, the attachment or link within the email is replaced with a malicious version and then sent from an email address spoofed to appear to come from the original sender. It may claim to be a resend of the original or a version to the original. Several phishing attacks have been directed specifically at senior executives and other high-profile targets within businesses, in the case of whaling, the masquerading web page/email will take a more serious executive-level form. The content will be crafted to target an upper manager and the role in the company. The content of a whaling attack email is often written as a legal subpoena, customer complaint, whaling scam emails are designed to masquerade as a critical business email, sent from a legitimate business authority. The content is meant to be tailored for upper management, whaling phishermen have also forged official-looking FBI subpoena emails, and claimed that the manager needs to click a link and install special software to view the subpoena. Most methods of phishing use some form of technical deception designed to make a link in an email appear to belong to the spoofed organization, misspelled URLs or the use of subdomains are the common tricks used by phishers. Another common trick is to make the text for a link suggest a reliable destination. Many email clients or web browsers will show previews of where a link will take the user in the left of the screen. This behaviour, however, may in some circumstances be overridden by the phisher, phishers have even started using images instead of text to make it harder for anti-phishing filters to detect text commonly used in phishing emails. However, this has led to the evolution of more sophisticated anti-phishing filters that are able to recover hidden text in images and these filters use OCR to optically scan the image and filter it. Once a victim visits the website, the deception is not over
26.
Oath
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Traditionally an oath is either a statement of fact or a promise with wording relating to something considered sacred as a sign of verity. A common legal substitute for those who object to making sacred oaths is to give an affirmation instead. Nowadays, even when theres no notion of sanctity involved, certain promises said out loud in ceremonial or juridical purpose are referred to as oaths, to swear is a verb used to describe the taking of an oath, to making a solemn vow. Usually oaths have referred to a deity significant in the sphere in question. The reciters personal views upon the divinity of the aspects considered sacred in a text of an oath may or may not be taken in to account. There might not be alternative personal proclamations with no mention of the dogma in question, such as affirmations. This might mean an impasse to those with unwillingness to edify the dogma they see as untrue, the essence of a divine oath is an invocation of divine agency to be a guarantor of the oath takers own honesty and integrity in the matter under question. By implication, this invokes divine displeasure if the oath taker fails in their sworn duties and it therefore implies greater care than usual in the act of the performance of ones duty, such as in testimony to the facts of the matter in a court of law. A person taking an oath indicates this in a number of ways. The most usual is the explicit I swear, but any statement or promise that includes with * as my witness or so help me *, with * being something or someone the oath-taker holds sacred, is an oath. However, the purpose of such an act is for ceremony or solemnity. Making vows and taking oaths became a concept in law practice that developed over time in different cultures. The concept of oaths is deeply rooted within Judaism and it is found in Genesis 8,21, when God swears that he will never again curse the ground because of man and never again smite every living thing. This repetition of the term never again is explained by Rashi, according to the Rabbis, a neder refers to the object, a shâmar to the person. In the Roman tradition, oaths were sworn upon Iuppiter Lapis or the Jupiter Stone located in the Temple of Jupiter, the punisher of broken oaths was the infernal deity Orcus. Various religious groups have objected to the taking of oaths, most notably the Religious Society of Friends and Anabaptist groups, like Mennonites, Amish, Hutterites and this is principally based on Matthew 5, 34-37, the Antithesis of the Law. Here, Christ is written to say I say to you, James the Just stated in James 5,12, Above all, my brothers, do not swear—not by heaven or by earth or by anything else. Let your Yes be yes, and your No, no, not all Christians interpret this reading as forbidding all types of oaths, however
27.
Internet Assigned Numbers Authority
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Following ICANNs transition to a global multistakeholder governance model, the IANA functions were transferred to Public Technical Identifiers, an affiliate of ICANN. In addition, five regional Internet registries delegate number resources to their customers, local Internet registries, Internet service providers, a local Internet registry is an organization that assigns parts of its allocation from a regional Internet registry to other customers. Most local Internet registries are also Internet service providers, IANA is broadly responsible for the allocation of globally unique names and numbers that are used in Internet protocols that are published as Request for Comments documents. These documents describe methods, behaviors, research, or innovations applicable to the working of the Internet, IANA maintains a close liaison with the Internet Engineering Task Force and RFC Editorial team in fulfilling this function. IANA is responsible for assignment of Internet numbers which are numerical identifier assigned to an Internet resource or used in the protocols of the Internet Protocol Suite. Examples include IP addresses and autonomous system numbers, IANA delegates allocations of IP address blocks to regional Internet registries. Each RIR allocates addresses for a different area of the world, collectively the RIRs have created the Number Resource Organization formed as a body to represent their collective interests and ensure that policy statements are coordinated globally. The RIRs divide their allocated address pools into smaller blocks and delegate them to Internet service providers, since the exhaustion of the Internet Protocol Version 4 address space, no further IPv4 address space is allocated by IANA. IANA administers the data in the root nameservers, which form the top of the hierarchical Domain name system tree and this task involves liaising with top-level domain operators, the root nameserver operators, and ICANNs policy making apparatus. IANA administers many parameters of IETF protocols, examples include the names of uniform resource identifier schemes and character encodings recommended for use on the Internet. This task is performed under the oversight of the Internet Architecture Board, on March 26,1972, Vint Cerf and Jon Postel at UCLA called for establishing a socket number catalog in RFC322. Network administrators were asked to submit a note or place a call, describing the function. This catalog was published as RFC433 in December 1972. In it Postel first proposed a registry of assignments of port numbers to network services, calling himself the czar of socket numbers. The first reference to the name IANA in the RFC series is in RFC1083, published in December,1988 by Postel at USC-ISI, there was widespread dissatisfaction with this concentration of power in one company, and people looked to IANA for a solution. Postel wrote up a draft on IANA and the creation of new top level domains and he was trying to institutionalize IANA. In retrospect, this would have been valuable, since he died about two years later. Jon Postel managed the IANA function from its inception on the ARPANET until his death in October 1998, by his almost 30 years of selfless service, Postel created his de facto authority to manage key parts of the Internet infrastructure
28.
App Store (iOS)
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App Store is a digital distribution platform, developed and maintained by Apple Inc. for mobile apps on its iOS operating system. The store allows users to browse and download apps developed with Apples iOS software development kit, App Store was opened on July 10,2008, with an initial 500 applications available. As of January 2017, the store features over 2.2 million apps, major changes introduced in the following months include ads in search results, a new app subscription model, and the ability for developers to respond to customer reviews. The iPhone App Store opened on July 10,2008, on July 11, the iPhone 3G was released and came pre-loaded with support for App Store. After the success of Apples App Store and the launch of services by its competitors. However, Apple applied for a U. S. trademark on the term App Store in 2008, which was tentatively approved in early 2011. In June 2011, U. S. District Judge Phyllis Hamilton, in July, Apple was denied preliminary injunction against Amazons Appstore by a federal judge. The term app has become a buzzword, in January 2011. App has been used as shorthand for application since at least the mid-1990s, in February 2011, Apple announced its new subscription-based service, which was to allow publishers the freedom to set the length and price of subscriptions. Previously, new magazine or news releases were sold on a per-release basis, the new service enabled publishers to sell content directly through their apps, allowing users to receive new content over specified periods of time. In February 2013, Apple informed developers that they could begin using appstore. com for links to their apps, in September 2015, it was discovered that hundreds of apps submitted and approved on App Store were using XcodeGhost, a malicious version of the Xcode development software. The issues prompted Apple to remove infected apps from the store, a security firm later published lists of infected apps, including a China-only version of Angry Birds 2, CamCard, Lifesmart, TinyDeal. com, and WeChat. On September 1,2016, Apple announced that starting September 7, developers will be warned and given 30 days to update their apps, but apps that crash on startup will be removed immediately.7 billion vs. approximately $1.5 billion by American users. Apples senior vice president of worldwide marketing Phil Schiller tweeted in December 2016 that November marked the record of highest monthly App Store sales, in January 2017, reports surfaced that documentation for a new beta for the then-upcoming release of iOS10. The functionality was enabled on March 27,2017 when iOS10.3 was released to users. Developers are also forbidden from manipulating or incentivizing feedback, the Software Development Kit for iPhone OS was announced at the iPhone Software Roadmap event on March 6,2008. The SDK allows developers running Mac OS X10.5.4 or higher on an Intel Mac to create applications using Xcode that will run on the iPhone, iPod Touch. A beta version was released after the event and a version was released in July 2008 alongside the iPhone 3G
29.
IOS
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IOS is a mobile operating system created and developed by Apple Inc. exclusively for its hardware. It is the system that presently powers many of the companys mobile devices, including the iPhone, iPad. It is the second most popular operating system globally after Android. IPad tablets are also the second most popular, by sales, originally unveiled in 2007 for the iPhone, iOS has been extended to support other Apple devices such as the iPod Touch and the iPad. As of January 2017, Apples App Store contains more than 2.2 million iOS applications,1 million of which are native for iPads and these mobile apps have collectively been downloaded more than 130 billion times. The iOS user interface is based upon direct manipulation, using multi-touch gestures, interface control elements consist of sliders, switches, and buttons. Internal accelerometers are used by applications to respond to shaking the device or rotating it in three dimensions. Apple has been praised for incorporating thorough accessibility functions into iOS, enabling users with vision. Major versions of iOS are released annually, the current version, iOS10, was released on September 13,2016. In iOS, there are four layers, the Core OS, Core Services, Media. In 2005, when Steve Jobs began planning the iPhone, he had a choice to either shrink the Mac, forstall was also responsible for creating a software development kit for programmers to build iPhone apps, as well as an App Store within iTunes. The operating system was unveiled with the iPhone at the Macworld Conference & Expo on January 9,2007, and released in June of that year. At the time of its unveiling in January, Steve Jobs claimed, iPhone runs OS X and runs applications, but at the time of the iPhones release. Initially, third-party native applications were not supported, Steve Jobs reasoning was that developers could build web applications through the Safari web browser that would behave like native apps on the iPhone. In October 2007, Apple announced that a native Software Development Kit was under development, on March 6,2008, Apple held a press event, announcing the iPhone SDK. The iOS App Store was opened on July 10,2008 with an initial 500 applications available.2 million in January 2017, as of March 2016,1 million apps are natively compatible with the iPad tablet computer. These apps have collectively been downloaded more than 130 billion times, App intelligence firm Sensor Tower has estimated that the App Store will reach 5 million apps by the year 2020. On September 5,2007, Apple released the iPod Touch, Apple also sold more than one million iPhones during the 2007 holiday season
30.
Google Play
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Google Play is a digital distribution service, including a digital media store, the Google Play Store, operated and developed by Google. Google Play also serves as a digital media store, offering music, magazines, books, movies and it previously offered Google hardware devices for purchase until the introduction of a separate online hardware retailer, Google Store, on March 11,2015. Applications are available through Google Play either free of charge or at a cost and they can be downloaded directly to an Android device through the Play Store mobile app, or by deploying the application to a device from the Google Play website. Applications exploiting hardware capabilities of a device can be targeted to users of devices with specific hardware components, the Google Play store had over 50 billion app downloads in 2013 and has reached over 2.7 million apps published in 2017. Google Play was launched on March 6,2012, bringing together the Android Market, Google Music, and the Google eBookstore under one brand, marking a shift in Googles digital distribution strategy. The services operating under the Google Play banner are, Google Play Books, Google Play Games, Google Play Movies & TV, Google Play Music, as of February 2017, Google Play features over 2.7 million Android applications. Developers in over 150 locations can distribute apps on Google Play, to distribute apps, developers have to pay a one-time $25 registration fee for a Google Play Developer Console account. App developers can control which countries an app is distributed to, Developers receive 70% of the application price, while the remaining 30% goes to the distribution partner and operating fees. Developers can set up sales, with the original price striked out, Google Play allows developers to release early versions of apps to a select group of users, as alpha or beta tests. Developers can also release apps through staged rollouts, in which your update reaches only a percentage of your users, users can pre-order select apps to have the items delivered as soon as they are available. Some network carriers offer billing for Google Play purchases, allowing users to opt for charges in the phone bill rather than on credit cards. Users can request refunds within 48 hours if something you bought isnt working, isnt what you expected, was bought by accident, Apps meeting specific usability requirements can qualify as an Android Wear app. Google Play Games is a gaming service for Android that features real-time multiplayer gaming capabilities, cloud saves, social and public leaderboards. The service was introduced at the Google I/O2013 Developer Conference, Google Play Music is a music and podcast streaming service and online music locker. It features over 40 million songs, and gives users free cloud storage of up to 50,000 songs, as of January 2017, Google Play Music is available in 62 countries. Google Play Books is a digital distribution service. Google Play offers over five million ebooks available for purchase, as of January 2017, Google Play Books is available in 75 countries. Google Play Movies & TV is a video on demand service offering movies and television shows available for purchase or rental, Google Play Newsstand is a news aggregator and digital newsstand service offering subscriptions to digital magazines and topical news feeds
31.
Android (operating system)
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Android is a mobile operating system developed by Google, based on the Linux kernel and designed primarily for touchscreen mobile devices such as smartphones and tablets. In addition to devices, Google has further developed Android TV for televisions, Android Auto for cars. Variants of Android are also used on notebooks, game consoles, digital cameras, beginning with the first commercial Android device in September 2008, the operating system has gone through multiple major releases, with the current version being 7.0 Nougat, released in August 2016. Android applications can be downloaded from the Google Play store, which features over 2.7 million apps as of February 2017, Android has been the best-selling OS on tablets since 2013, and runs on the vast majority of smartphones. In September 2015, Android had 1.4 billion monthly active users, Android is popular with technology companies that require a ready-made, low-cost and customizable operating system for high-tech devices. The success of Android has made it a target for patent, Android Inc. was founded in Palo Alto, California in October 2003 by Andy Rubin, Rich Miner, Nick Sears, and Chris White. Rubin described the Android project as tremendous potential in developing smarter mobile devices that are aware of its owners location. The early intentions of the company were to develop an operating system for digital cameras. Despite the past accomplishments of the founders and early employees, Android Inc. operated secretly and that same year, Rubin ran out of money. Steve Perlman, a friend of Rubin, brought him $10,000 in cash in an envelope. In July 2005, Google acquired Android Inc. for at least $50 million and its key employees, including Rubin, Miner and White, joined Google as part of the acquisition. Not much was known about Android at the time, with Rubin having only stated that they were making software for mobile phones, at Google, the team led by Rubin developed a mobile device platform powered by the Linux kernel. Google marketed the platform to handset makers and carriers on the promise of providing a flexible, upgradeable system, Google had lined up a series of hardware components and software partners and signaled to carriers that it was open to various degrees of cooperation. Speculation about Googles intention to enter the communications market continued to build through December 2006. In September 2007, InformationWeek covered an Evalueserve study reporting that Google had filed several patent applications in the area of mobile telephony, the first commercially available smartphone running Android was the HTC Dream, also known as T-Mobile G1, announced on September 23,2008. Since 2008, Android has seen numerous updates which have improved the operating system, adding new features. Each major release is named in order after a dessert or sugary treat, with the first few Android versions being called Cupcake, Donut, Eclair. In 2010, Google launched its Nexus series of devices, a lineup in which Google partnered with different device manufacturers to produce new devices and introduce new Android versions
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Hindi
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Hindi, or Modern Standard Hindi is a standardised and Sanskritised register of the Hindustani language. Along with the English language, Hindi written in the Devanagari script, is the language of the Government of India. It is also one of the 22 scheduled languages of the Republic of India, Hindi is the lingua franca of the so-called Hindi belt of India. Outside India, it is a language which is known as Fiji Hindi in Fiji, and is a recognised regional language in Mauritius, Trinidad and Tobago, Guyana. Hindi is the fourth most-spoken first language in the world, after Mandarin, apart from specialized vocabulary, Hindi is mutually intelligible with Standard Urdu, another recognized register of Hindustani. Part XVII of the Indian Constitution deals with Official Language, under Article 343, official language of the Union has been prescribed, which includes Hindi in Devanagari script and English. Gujarat High Court, in 2010, has observed that there was nothing on record to suggest that any provision has been made or order issued declaring Hindi as a language of India. Article 343 of the Indian constitution states The official language of the Union shall be Hindi in Devanagari script, the form of numerals to be used for the official purposes of the Union shall be the international form of Indian numerals. It was envisioned that Hindi would become the working language of the Union Government by 1965. Each may also designate a co-official language, in Uttar Pradesh, for instance, depending on the formation in power. Similarly, Hindi is accorded the status of language in the following Union Territories, Andaman & Nicobar Islands, Chandigarh, Dadra & Nagar Haveli, Daman & Diu. National-language status for Hindi is a long-debated theme, an Indian court clarified that Hindi is not the national language of India because the constitution does not mention it as such. Outside Asia, Hindi is a language in Fiji as per the 1997 Constitution of Fiji. It is spoken by 380,000 people in Fiji, Hindi is also spoken by a large population of Madheshis of Nepal. Hindi is quite easy to understand for some Pakistanis, who speak Urdu, apart from this, Hindi is spoken by the large Indian diaspora which hails from, or has its origin from the Hindi Belt of India. Like other Indo-Aryan languages, Hindi is considered to be a descendant of an early form of Sanskrit, through Sauraseni Prakrit. It has been influenced by Dravidian languages, Turkic languages, Persian, Arabic, Portuguese, Hindi emerged as Apabhramsha, a degenerated form of Prakrit, in the 7th century A. D. By the 10th century A. D. it became stable, Braj Bhasha, Bhojpuri, Awadhi, Khari Boli etc. are the dialects of Hindi
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Bengali language
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Bengali, also known by its endonym Bangla, is an Indo-Aryan language spoken in South Asia. With over 210 million speakers, Bengali is the seventh most spoken language in the world. Dominant in the last group was Persian, which was also the source of some grammatical forms, more recent studies suggest that the use of native and foreign words has been increasing, mainly because of the preference of Bengali speakers for the colloquial style. Today, Bengali is the language spoken in Bangladesh and the second most spoken language in India. Both the national anthems of Bangladesh and India were composed in Bengali, in 1952, the Bengali Language Movement successfully pushed for the languages official status in the Dominion of Pakistan. In 1999, UNESCO recognized 21 February as International Mother Language Day in recognition of the movement in East Pakistan. Language is an important element of Bengali identity and binds together a diverse region. Sanskrit was spoken in Bengal since the first millennium BCE, during the Gupta Empire, Bengal was a hub of Sanskrit literature. The Middle Indo-Aryan dialects were spoken in Bengal in the first millennium when the region was a part of the Magadha Realm and these dialects were called Magadhi Prakrit. They eventually evolved into Ardha Magadhi, Ardha Magadhi began to give way to what are called Apabhraṃśa languages at the end of the first millennium. Along with other Eastern Indo-Aryan languages, Bengali evolved circa 1000–1200 AD from Sanskrit, for example, Ardhamagadhi is believed to have evolved into Abahatta around the 6th century, which competed with the ancestor of Bengali for some time. Proto-Bengali was the language of the Pala Empire and the Sena dynasty, during the medieval period, Middle Bengali was characterized by the elision of word-final অ ô, the spread of compound verbs and Arabic and Persian influences. Bengali was a court language of the Sultanate of Bengal. Muslim rulers promoted the development of Bengali as part of efforts to Islamize. Bengali became the most spoken language in the Sultanate. This period saw borrowing of Perso-Arabic terms into Bengali vocabulary, major texts of Middle Bengali include Chandidas Shreekrishna Kirtana. The modern literary form of Bengali was developed during the 19th and early 20th centuries based on the dialect spoken in the Nadia region, a west-central Bengali dialect. Bengali presents a case of diglossia, with the literary
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Marathi language
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Marathi is an Indian language spoken predominantly by the Marathi people of Maharashtra. It is the language and co-official language in the Maharashtra and Goa states of Western India, respectively. There were 73 million speakers in 2001, Marathi ranks 19th in the list of most spoken languages in the world, Marathi has the fourth largest number of native speakers in India, after Hindi, Bengali and Telugu in that order. Marathi has some of the oldest literature of all modern Indo-Aryan languages, the major dialects of Marathi are Standard Marathi and the Varhadi dialect. Malvani Konkani has been influenced by Marathi varieties. Marathi has several features that set it aside from most other Indian languages, Marathi distinguishes inclusive and exclusive forms of we and possesses a three-way gender system that features the neuter in addition to the masculine and the feminine. In its phonology it contrasts apico-alveolar with alveopalatal affricates and, in common with Gujarati, Marathi is primarily spoken in Maharashtra and parts of neighbouring states of Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh, Goa, union-territories of Daman and Diu and Dadra and Nagar Haveli. The cities of Baroda, Surat, and Ahmedabad, Belgaum, Karwar, Nipani, Indore, Gwalior, Adoni, Hyderabad, Marathi is also spoken by Maharashtrian emigrants worldwide, especially in the United States, United Kingdom, Israel, Mauritius, and Canada. Marathi is the language of Maharashtra and co-official language in the union territories of Daman and Diu and Dadra. In Goa, Konkani is the official language, however. Marathi is included among the languages which stand a part of the Eight Schedule of the Constitution of India, the contemporary grammatical rules described by Maharashtra Sahitya Parishad and endorsed by the Government of Maharashtra are supposed to take precedence in standard written Marathi. Traditions of Marathi Linguistics and the rules give special status to tatsamas. This special status expects the rules for tatsamas to be followed as in Sanskrit and this practice provides Marathi with a large treasure of Sanskrit words to cope with demands of new technical words whenever needed. Jawaharlal Nehru University has announced plans to establish a department for Marathi. Marathi Day is celebrated on 27 February, the birthday of poet Vishnu Vaman Shirwadkar, Indian languages, including Marathi, that belong to the Indo-Aryan language family are derived from early forms of Prakrit. Marathi is one of languages that further descend from Maharashtri Prakrit. Marathi literature began and grew owing to the rise of the Seuna dynasty of Devgiri, further growth and usage of the language was because of two religious sects – the Mahanubhava and Varkari panthans – who adopted Marathi as the medium for preaching their doctrines of devotion. Marathi had attained a place in court life by the time of the Seuna kings
142,397 (July 2017[update])[2]
