1.
New Haven, Connecticut
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New Haven, in the U. S. state of Connecticut, is the principal municipality in Greater New Haven, which had a total population of 862,477 in 2010. It is located on New Haven Harbor on the shore of Long Island Sound in New Haven County, Connecticut. It is the second-largest city in Connecticut, with a population of 129,779 people as of the 2010 United States Census, according to a census of 1 July 2012, by the Census Bureau, the city had a population of 130,741. New Haven was founded in 1638 by English Puritans, and a year later eight streets were laid out in a four-by-four grid, the central common block is the New Haven Green, a 16-acre square, and the center of Downtown New Haven. The Green is now a National Historic Landmark and the Nine Square Plan is recognized by the American Planning Association as a National Planning Landmark, New Haven is the home of Yale University. The university is an part of the citys economy, being New Havens biggest taxpayer and employer. Health care, professional services, financial services, and retail trade also help to form a base for the city. The city served as co-capital of Connecticut from 1701 until 1873, New Haven has since billed itself as the Cultural Capital of Connecticut for its supply of established theaters, museums, and music venues. New Haven is also the birthplace of George W. Bush, New Haven had the first public tree planting program in America, producing a canopy of mature trees that gave New Haven the nickname The Elm City. The area was visited by Dutch explorer Adriaen Block in 1614. Dutch traders set up a trading system of beaver pelts with the local inhabitants, but trade was sporadic. In 1637 a small party of Puritans reconnoitered the New Haven harbor area, the Quinnipiacs, who were under attack by neighboring Pequots, sold their land to the settlers in return for protection. By 1640, the theocratic government and nine-square grid plan were in place. However, the north of New Haven remained Quinnipiac until 1678. The settlement became the headquarters of the New Haven Colony, at the time, the New Haven Colony was separate from the Connecticut Colony, which had been established to the north centering on Hartford. Economic disaster struck the colony in 1646, however, when the town sent its first fully loaded ship of goods back to England. This ship never reached the Old World, and its disappearance stymied New Havens development in the face of the rising power of Boston. In 1660, founder John Davenports wishes were fulfilled, and Hopkins School was founded in New Haven with money from the estate of Edward Hopkins, in 1661, the judges who had signed the death warrant of Charles I of England were pursued by Charles II
2.
Geographic coordinate system
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A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
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Art museum
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An art museum or art gallery is a building or space for the exhibition of art, usually visual art. Museums can be public or private, but what distinguishes a museum is the ownership of a collection, the term is used for both public galleries, which are non-profit or publicly owned museums that display selected collections of art. On the other hand, private galleries refers to the commercial enterprises for the sale of art, however, both types of gallery may host traveling exhibits or temporary exhibitions including art borrowed from elsewhere. In broad terms, in North American usage, the word gallery alone often implies a private gallery, the term contemporary art gallery refers usually to a privately owned for-profit commercial gallery. These galleries are found clustered together in large urban centers. Smaller cities are home to at least one gallery, but they may also be found in towns or villages. Contemporary art galleries are open to the general public without charge, however. They usually profit by taking a portion of art sales, from 25% to 50% is typical, there are also many non-profit or collective galleries. Some galleries in cities like Tokyo charge the artists a flat rate per day, curators often create group shows that say something about a certain theme, trend in art, or group of associated artists. Galleries sometimes choose to represent artists exclusively, giving them the opportunity to show regularly, a gallerys definition can also include the artist cooperative or artist-run space, which often operates as a space with a more democratic mission and selection process. A vanity gallery is an art gallery that charges fees from artists in order to show their work, the shows are not legitimately curated and will frequently or usually include as many artists as possible. Most art professionals are able to identify them on an artists resume, University art museums and galleries constitute collections of art that are developed, owned, and maintained by all kinds of schools, community colleges, colleges, and universities. This phenomenon exists in both the West and East, making it a global practice, although largely overlooked, there are over 700 university art museums in America alone. This number, in comparison to other kinds of art museums, throughout history, large and expensive works of art have generally been commissioned by religious institutions and monarchs and been displayed in temples, churches, and palaces. Although these collections of art were private, they were made available for viewing for a portion of the public. In classical times, religious institutions began to function as a form of art gallery. Wealthy Roman collectors of engraved gems and other precious objects often donated their collections to temples and it is unclear how easy it was in practice for the public to view these items. At the Palace of Versailles, entrance was restricted to wearing the proper apparel – the appropriate accessories could be hired from shops outside
4.
Yale University
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Yale University is an American private Ivy League research university in New Haven, Connecticut. Founded in 1701 in Saybrook Colony to train Congregationalist ministers, it is the third-oldest institution of education in the United States. The Collegiate School moved to New Haven in 1716, and shortly after was renamed Yale College in recognition of a gift from British East India Company governor Elihu Yale. Originally restricted to theology and sacred languages, the curriculum began to incorporate humanities and sciences by the time of the American Revolution. In the 19th century the school introduced graduate and professional instruction, awarding the first Ph. D. in the United States in 1861 and organizing as a university in 1887. Yale is organized into fourteen constituent schools, the undergraduate college, the Yale Graduate School of Arts and Sciences. While the university is governed by the Yale Corporation, each schools faculty oversees its curriculum, the universitys assets include an endowment valued at $25.4 billion as of June 2016, the second largest of any U. S. educational institution. The Yale University Library, serving all constituent schools, holds more than 15 million volumes and is the third-largest academic library in the United States, Yale College undergraduates follow a liberal arts curriculum with departmental majors and are organized into a social system of residential colleges. Almost all faculty teach courses, more than 2,000 of which are offered annually. Students compete intercollegiately as the Yale Bulldogs in the NCAA Division I – Ivy League, Yale has graduated many notable alumni, including five U. S. Presidents,19 U. S. Supreme Court Justices,20 living billionaires, and many heads of state. In addition, Yale has graduated hundreds of members of Congress,57 Nobel laureates,5 Fields Medalists,247 Rhodes Scholars, and 119 Marshall Scholars have been affiliated with the University. Yale traces its beginnings to An Act for Liberty to Erect a Collegiate School, passed by the General Court of the Colony of Connecticut on October 9,1701, the Act was an effort to create an institution to train ministers and lay leadership for Connecticut. Soon thereafter, a group of ten Congregationalist ministers, Samuel Andrew, Thomas Buckingham, Israel Chauncy, Samuel Mather, the group, led by James Pierpont, is now known as The Founders. Originally known as the Collegiate School, the institution opened in the home of its first rector, Abraham Pierson, the school moved to Saybrook, and then Wethersfield. In 1716 the college moved to New Haven, Connecticut, the feud caused the Mathers to champion the success of the Collegiate School in the hope that it would maintain the Puritan religious orthodoxy in a way that Harvard had not. Cotton Mather suggested that the school change its name to Yale College, meanwhile, a Harvard graduate working in England convinced some 180 prominent intellectuals that they should donate books to Yale. The 1714 shipment of 500 books represented the best of modern English literature, science, philosophy and it had a profound effect on intellectuals at Yale. Undergraduate Jonathan Edwards discovered John Lockes works and developed his original theology known as the new divinity
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Modern art
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Modern art includes artistic work produced during the period extending roughly from the 1860s to the 1970s, and denotes the style and philosophy of the art produced during that era. The term is associated with art in which the traditions of the past have been thrown aside in a spirit of experimentation. Modern artists experimented with new ways of seeing and with ideas about the nature of materials. A tendency away from the narrative, which was characteristic for the traditional arts, more recent artistic production is often called contemporary art or postmodern art. Matisses two versions of The Dance signified a key point in his career and in the development of modern painting, analytic cubism was jointly developed by Picasso and Georges Braque, exemplified by Violin and Candlestick, Paris, from about 1908 through 1912. Synthetic cubism is characterized by the introduction of different textures, surfaces, collage elements, papier collé, the notion of modern art is closely related to modernism. Although modern sculpture and architecture are reckoned to have emerged at the end of the 19th century, the beginnings of modern painting can be located earlier. The date perhaps most commonly identified as marking the birth of art is 1863. Earlier dates have also proposed, among them 1855 and 1784. In the words of art historian H, harvard Arnason, Each of these dates has significance for the development of modern art, but none categorically marks a completely new beginning. A gradual metamorphosis took place in the course of a hundred years, the strands of thought that eventually led to modern art can be traced back to the Enlightenment, and even to the 17th century. The important modern art critic Clement Greenberg, for instance, called Immanuel Kant the first real Modernist but also drew a distinction, The Enlightenment criticized from the outside. The French Revolution of 1789 uprooted assumptions and institutions that had for centuries been accepted with little question and this gave rise to what art historian Ernst Gombrich called a self-consciousness that made people select the style of their building as one selects the pattern of a wallpaper. The pioneers of art were Romantics, Realists and Impressionists. By the late 19th century, additional movements which were to be influential in art had begun to emerge. The advocates of realism stood against the idealism of the academic art that enjoyed public. The most successful painters of the day worked either through commissions or through public exhibitions of their own work. There were official, government-sponsored painters unions, while governments regularly held exhibitions of new fine
6.
John Trumbull
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John Trumbull was an American artist during the period of the American Revolutionary War and was notable for his historical paintings. His Declaration of Independence was used on the reverse of the two-dollar bill, Trumbull was born in Lebanon, Connecticut, in 1756, to Jonathan Trumbull and his wife Faith Trumbull. His father served as Governor of Connecticut from 1769 to 1784, both sides of his family were descended from early Puritan settlers in the state. The young Trumbull entered the 1771 junior class at Harvard College at age fifteen, due to a childhood accident, Trumbull lost use of one eye, which may have influenced his detailed painting style. As a soldier in the American Revolutionary War, Trumbull rendered a service at Boston by sketching plans of the British works. He witnessed the Battle of Bunker Hill and he was appointed second personal aide to General George Washington, and in June 1776, deputy adjutant-general to General Horatio Gates. He resigned from the army in 1777 after a dispute over the dating of his officer commission, in 1780 he traveled to London, where he studied under Benjamin West. At Wests suggestion, Trumbull painted small pictures of the War of Independence and he painted about 250 in his lifetime. On September 23,1780, British agent Major John André was captured by Continental troops in North America, after news reached Great Britain, outrage flared and Trumbull was arrested, as having been an officer in the Continental Army of similar rank to André. He was imprisoned for seven months in Londons Tothill Fields Bridewell, after being released, Trumbull returned to the United States. In 1784, following the British recognition of the United States independence, while working in his studio, Trumbull painted Battle of Bunker Hill and Death of General Montgomery in the Attack on Quebec. Both works are now in the Yale University Art Gallery, in 1785 Trumbull went to Paris, where he made portrait sketches of French officers for the Surrender of Lord Cornwallis. With the assistance of Thomas Jefferson, serving there as the US minister, while in Paris, Trumbull is credited with having introduced Jefferson to the Italian painter Maria Cosway, they became lifelong intimate friends. Trumbulls painting became widely known due to an engraving of it by Asher Brown Durand. All now hang in rotunda of the United States Capitol, congress reportedly authorized only funds sufficient to purchase these four paintings. Trumbulls The Sortie Made by the Garrison of Gibraltar,1789, in 1831 Trumbull sold a series of 28 paintings and 60 miniature portraits to Yale University for an annuity of $1,000. This is by far the largest single collection of his works, the collection was originally housed in a neoclassical art gallery designed by Trumbull on Yales Old Campus, along with portraits by other artists. His portraits include full lengths of General Washington and George Clinton, New York also bought his full-length paintings of Alexander Hamilton and John Jay
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Painting
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Painting is the practice of applying paint, pigment, color or other medium to a solid surface. The medium is commonly applied to the base with a brush, but other implements, such as knives, sponges, Painting is a mode of creative expression, and the forms are numerous. Drawing, gesture, composition, narration, or abstraction, among other aesthetic modes, may serve to manifest the expressive, Paintings can be naturalistic and representational, photographic, abstract, narrative, symbolistic, emotive, or political in nature. A portion of the history of painting in both Eastern and Western art is dominated by motifs and ideas. In art, the term painting describes both the act and the result of the action, the term painting is also used outside of art as a common trade among craftsmen and builders. What enables painting is the perception and representation of intensity, every point in space has different intensity, which can be represented in painting by black and white and all the gray shades between. In practice, painters can articulate shapes by juxtaposing surfaces of different intensity, thus, the basic means of painting are distinct from ideological means, such as geometrical figures, various points of view and organization, and symbols. In technical drawing, thickness of line is ideal, demarcating ideal outlines of an object within a perceptual frame different from the one used by painters. Color and tone are the essence of painting as pitch and rhythm are the essence of music, color is highly subjective, but has observable psychological effects, although these can differ from one culture to the next. Black is associated with mourning in the West, but in the East, some painters, theoreticians, writers and scientists, including Goethe, Kandinsky, and Newton, have written their own color theory. Moreover, the use of language is only an abstraction for a color equivalent, the word red, for example, can cover a wide range of variations from the pure red of the visible spectrum of light. There is not a register of different colors in the way that there is agreement on different notes in music. For a painter, color is not simply divided into basic, painters deal practically with pigments, so blue for a painter can be any of the blues, phthalocyanine blue, Prussian blue, indigo, cobalt, ultramarine, and so on. Psychological and symbolical meanings of color are not, strictly speaking, colors only add to the potential, derived context of meanings, and because of this, the perception of a painting is highly subjective. The analogy with music is quite clear—sound in music is analogous to light in painting, shades to dynamics and these elements do not necessarily form a melody of themselves, rather, they can add different contexts to it. Modern artists have extended the practice of painting considerably to include, as one example, collage, some modern painters incorporate different materials such as sand, cement, straw or wood for their texture. Examples of this are the works of Jean Dubuffet and Anselm Kiefer, there is a growing community of artists who use computers to paint color onto a digital canvas using programs such as Adobe Photoshop, Corel Painter, and many others. These images can be printed onto traditional canvas if required, rhythm is important in painting as it is in music
8.
American Revolution
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The British responded by imposing punitive laws on Massachusetts in 1774 known as the Coercive Acts, following which Patriots in the other colonies rallied behind Massachusetts. Tensions escalated to the outbreak of fighting between Patriot militia and British regulars at Lexington and Concord in April 1775, the conflict then developed into a global war, during which the Patriots fought the British and Loyalists in what became known as the American Revolutionary War. The Continental Congress determined King George IIIs rule to be tyrannical and infringing the rights as Englishmen. The Patriot leadership professed the political philosophies of liberalism and republicanism to reject monarchy and aristocracy, Congress rejected British proposals requiring allegiance to the monarchy and abandonment of independence. The British were forced out of Boston in 1776, but then captured and they blockaded the ports and captured other cities for brief periods, but failed to defeat Washingtons forces. After a failed Patriot invasion of Canada, a British army was captured at the Battle of Saratoga in late 1777, a combined American–French force captured a second British army at Yorktown in 1781, effectively ending the war in the United States. The Treaty of Paris in 1783 formally ended the conflict, confirming the new nations complete separation from the British Empire. The United States took possession of all the territory east of the Mississippi River and south of the Great Lakes, with the British retaining control of Canada. Among the significant results of the revolution was the creation of a new Constitution of the United States. Historians typically begin their histories of the American Revolution with the British victory in the French and Indian War in 1763, the lands west of Quebec and west of a line running along the crest of the Allegheny mountains became Indian territory, temporarily barred to settlement. For the prior history, see Thirteen Colonies, in 1764, Parliament passed the Currency Act to restrain the use of paper money which British merchants saw as a means to evade debt payments. Parliament also passed the Sugar Act, imposing customs duties on a number of articles, none did and Parliament passed the Stamp Act in March 1765 which imposed direct taxes on the colonies for the first time. All official documents, newspapers, almanacs, and pamphlets—even decks of playing cards—were required to have the stamps, the colonists did not object that the taxes were high, but because they had no representation in the Parliament. Benjamin Franklin testified in Parliament in 1766 that Americans already contributed heavily to the defense of the Empire, stationing a standing army in Great Britain during peacetime was politically unacceptable. London had to deal with 1,500 politically well-connected British officers who became redundant, in 1765, the Sons of Liberty formed. They used public demonstrations, boycott, violence, and threats of violence to ensure that the British tax laws were unenforceable, in Boston, the Sons of Liberty burned the records of the vice admiralty court and looted the home of chief justice Thomas Hutchinson. Several legislatures called for united action, and nine colonies sent delegates to the Stamp Act Congress in New York City in October 1765, moderates led by John Dickinson drew up a Declaration of Rights and Grievances stating that taxes passed without representation violated their rights as Englishmen. Colonists emphasized their determination by boycotting imports of British merchandise, the Parliament at Westminster saw itself as the supreme lawmaking authority throughout all British possessions and thus entitled to levy any tax without colonial approval
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Old Campus (Yale University)
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The Old Campus is the oldest area of the Yale University campus in New Haven, Connecticut. It is the residence of Yale College freshmen and also contains offices for the academic departments of Classics, English, Comparative Literature. Fourteen buildings—including eight dormitories and two chapels—surround a 4-acre courtyard with an entrance from the New Haven Green known as Phelps Gate. The Old Campus comprised most of Yale Colleges grounds between its arrival in New Haven in 1718 and its 20th-century expansion and it was joined by Connecticut Hall in 1750, a student dormitory and Yales only surviving building from the colonial era. A linear building plan established in 1792, known as Old Brick Row, was the first campus plan in the United States, after 1870, the original plan gave way to the current quadrangle of dormitories, academic buildings, and chapels. Although the current buildings have been renovated and their uses changed during the twentieth century, when Yale College moved to New Haven in 1718, the town constructed its first building, the College House, at the corner of College and Chapel Streets, where Bingham Hall now stands. The wood-framed structure contained all the functions of the college, student rooms, a library, falling into disrepair, this building was torn down in stages from 1775 to 1782. Beginning in 1750 with the construction of Connecticut Hall, a student dormitory. A chapel, later known as the Atheneum, joined the dormitory in 1761, trumbulls drawings chose Stiles linear pattern, interleaving narrow, steepled buildings between long student dormitories. By 1824, Old Brick Row included four student dormitories, then known as colleges, around the Brick Row at this time were a chemical laboratory, a mineralogical building, and the Second Presidents House, replacing one north of Elm Street. The college gradually purchased parcels of land until it controlled the whole block by 1857, properties owned by Amos Doolittle and Benjamin Franklin were consolidated and demolished, as were the town jail and poorhouse. On newly acquired land surrounding Old Brick Row, administrators built the Trumbull Gallery, Divinity College, the College Library, of the fourteen Yale buildings completed by 1850, only two, Connecticut Hall and the College Library, would stand fifty years later, and both survive today. In 1870, Yale President Noah Porter announced the gradual abandoment and removal of the present buildings of the Brick Row, where before it had been most pretegious to live off campus, the new dormitories became fashionable as the preserve of seniors. When Yales residential colleges were opened in 1933, the Old Campus transitioned to a home for the common Freshman Year, in 1833, a picket fence encircling the campus was replaced with a rail fence, causing a major shift in the social patterns of the Old Campus. The Yale Fence, a fence with square posts and round rails that ran three sides of Old Brick Row, was the colleges primary gathering place thereafter. Students would claim sections by class year, with seniors taking choice seats along Chapel Street, however, as the modern quadrangle took form, the fence was gradually uprooted. In 1888, the displacement of its last section for Osborn Hall caused 2,100 alumni to write in protest, the Yale Fence Club, an undergraduate fraternal organization, was named in its memory. The fence currently lining the Old Campus interior courtyard is modeled after the old fence, Old Campus houses freshmen from ten of Yale Colleges twelve residential colleges
10.
Louis Kahn
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Louis Isadore Kahn was an American architect, based in Philadelphia. After working in various capacities for several firms in Philadelphia, he founded his own atelier in 1935, while continuing his private practice, he served as a design critic and professor of architecture at Yale School of Architecture from 1947 to 1957. From 1957 until his death, he was a professor of architecture at the School of Design at the University of Pennsylvania. Kahn created a style that was monumental and monolithic, his buildings for the most part do not hide their weight, their materials. Louis Kahns works are considered as monumental beyond modernism, famous for his meticulously built works, his provocative proposals that remained unbuilt, and his teaching, Kahn was one of the most influential architects of the twentieth century. He was awarded the AIA Gold Medal and the RIBA Gold Medal, at the time of his death he was considered by some as Americas foremost living architect. Louis Kahn, whose name was Itze-Leib Schmuilowsky, was born into a poor Jewish family in Pärnu, formerly in Russian Empire. He spent his childhood in Kuressaare on the island of Saaremaa. At the age of three, he saw coals in the stove and was captivated by the light of the coal and he put the coal in his apron, which caught on fire and seared his face. He carried these scars for the rest of his life, in 1906, his family emigrated to the United States, as they feared that his father would be recalled into the military during the Russo-Japanese War. His birth year may have been recorded in the process of immigration. According to his sons 2003 documentary film, the family could not afford pencils and they made their own charcoal sticks from burnt twigs so that Louis could earn a little money from drawings. Later he earned money by playing piano to accompany silent movies in theaters and he became a naturalized citizen on May 15,1914. His father changed their name to Kahn in 1915, Kahn trained at the University of Pennsylvania in a rigorous Beaux-Arts tradition, with its emphasis on drawing. After completing his Bachelor of Architecture in 1924, Kahn worked as draftsman in the office of the city architect. He worked on the designs for the 1926 Sesquicentennial Exposition, in 1928, Kahn made a European tour. He was interested particularly in the walled city of Carcassonne, France. In 1932, Kahn and Dominique Berninger founded the Architectural Research Group, whose members were interested in the populist social agenda, among the more important of Kahns early collaborations was one with George Howe
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Ennead Architects
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Ennead Architects LLP is a New York City-based architectural firm. Previously known as Polshek Partnership, the firms partners renamed their practice in mid-2010, the 175-person firm offers architecture, master planning, historic preservation and interior design services. The majority of the work is for cultural, educational, governmental. The firm is led by twelve Partners, Timothy P. Hartung, Duncan Hazard, V. Guy Maxwell, Kevin McClurkan, Molly McGowan, Richard Olcott. In 2014, the established a Shanghai office to further streamline their operations in the Asia-Pacific. The firm’s architectural solutions are rooted in research involving the analysis of context, program, public image and environmental. The firm is a member of the United States Green Building Council, and twenty-five percent of registered architects on staff are LEED Accredited Professionals. C
12.
Romanesque architecture
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Romanesque Architecture is an architectural style of medieval Europe characterized by semi-circular arches. There is no consensus for the date of the Romanesque style, with proposals ranging from the 6th to the late 10th century. It developed in the 12th century into the Gothic style, marked by pointed arches, examples of Romanesque architecture can be found across the continent, making it the first pan-European architectural style since Imperial Roman Architecture. The Romanesque style in England is traditionally referred to as Norman architecture, each building has clearly defined forms, frequently of very regular, symmetrical plan, the overall appearance is one of simplicity when compared with the Gothic buildings that were to follow. The style can be identified right across Europe, despite regional characteristics, Many castles were built during this period, but they are greatly outnumbered by churches. The most significant are the great churches, many of which are still standing, more or less complete. The largest groups of Romanesque survivors are in areas that were less prosperous in subsequent periods, including parts of southern France, northern Spain and rural Italy. According to the Oxford English Dictionary, the word Romanesque means descended from Roman and was first used in English to designate what are now called Romance languages, Romance language is not degenerated Latin language. Latin language is degenerated Romance language, Romanesque architecture is not debased Roman architecture. Roman architecture is debased Romanesque architecture, the first use in a published work is in William Gunns An Inquiry into the Origin and Influence of Gothic Architecture. The term is now used for the more restricted period from the late 10th to 12th centuries, Many castles exist, the foundations of which date from the Romanesque period. Most have been altered, and many are in ruins. By far the greatest number of surviving Romanesque buildings are churches, the scope of Romanesque architecture Romanesque architecture was the first distinctive style to spread across Europe since the Roman Empire. In the more northern countries Roman building styles and techniques had never been adopted except for official buildings, although the round arch continued in use, the engineering skills required to vault large spaces and build large domes were lost. There was a loss of continuity, particularly apparent in the decline of the formal vocabulary of the Classical Orders. In Rome several great Constantinian basilicas continued in use as an inspiration to later builders, the largest building is the church, the plan of which is distinctly Germanic, having an apse at both ends, an arrangement not generally seen elsewhere. Another feature of the church is its regular proportion, the plan of the crossing tower providing a module for the rest of the plan. These features can both be seen at the Proto-Romanesque St. Michaels Church, Hildesheim, 1001–1030, the style, sometimes called First Romanesque or Lombard Romanesque, is characterised by thick walls, lack of sculpture and the presence of rhythmic ornamental arches known as a Lombard band
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George Washington
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George Washington was an American politician and soldier who served as the first President of the United States from 1789 to 1797 and was one of the Founding Fathers of the United States. He served as Commander-in-Chief of the Continental Army during the American Revolutionary War and he is popularly considered the driving force behind the nations establishment and came to be known as the father of the country, both during his lifetime and to this day. Washington was widely admired for his leadership qualities and was unanimously elected president by the Electoral College in the first two national elections. Washingtons incumbency established many precedents still in use today, such as the system, the inaugural address. His retirement from office two terms established a tradition that lasted until 1940 when Franklin Delano Roosevelt won an unprecedented third term. The 22nd Amendment now limits the president to two elected terms and he was born into the provincial gentry of Colonial Virginia to a family of wealthy planters who owned tobacco plantations and slaves, which he inherited. In his youth, he became an officer in the colonial militia during the first stages of the French. In 1775, the Second Continental Congress commissioned him as commander-in-chief of the Continental Army in the American Revolution, in that command, Washington forced the British out of Boston in 1776 but was defeated and nearly captured later that year when he lost New York City. After crossing the Delaware River in the middle of winter, he defeated the British in two battles, retook New Jersey, and restored momentum to the Patriot cause and his strategy enabled Continental forces to capture two major British armies at Saratoga in 1777 and Yorktown in 1781. In battle, however, Washington was repeatedly outmaneuvered by British generals with larger armies, after victory had been finalized in 1783, Washington resigned as commander-in-chief rather than seize power, proving his opposition to dictatorship and his commitment to American republicanism. Washington presided over the Constitutional Convention in 1787, which devised a new form of government for the United States. Following his election as president in 1789, he worked to unify rival factions in the fledgling nation and he supported Alexander Hamiltons programs to satisfy all debts, federal and state, established a permanent seat of government, implemented an effective tax system, and created a national bank. In avoiding war with Great Britain, he guaranteed a decade of peace and profitable trade by securing the Jay Treaty in 1795 and he remained non-partisan, never joining the Federalist Party, although he largely supported its policies. Washingtons Farewell Address was a primer on civic virtue, warning against partisanship, sectionalism. He retired from the presidency in 1797, returning to his home, upon his death, Washington was eulogized as first in war, first in peace, and first in the hearts of his countrymen by Representative Henry Lee III of Virginia. He was revered in life and in death, scholarly and public polling consistently ranks him among the top three presidents in American history and he has been depicted and remembered in monuments, public works, currency, and other dedications to the present day. He was born on February 11,1731, according to the Julian calendar, the Gregorian calendar was adopted within the British Empire in 1752, and it renders a birth date of February 22,1732. Washington was of primarily English gentry descent, especially from Sulgrave and his great-grandfather John Washington emigrated to Virginia in 1656 and began accumulating land and slaves, as did his son Lawrence and his grandson, Georges father Augustine
14.
Robert Field (painter)
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Robert Field was a painter who was born in London, England, and died in Kingston, Jamaica. He was one of America’s leading miniaturists, along with being the most important painter in Nova Scotia at the beginning of the 19th century, at this time, Field was probably the most professionally trained painter to settle in Canada. Daphne Foskett in A Dictionary of British Miniature Painters wrote that Field was and he worked in the conventional neo-classic portrait style of Henry Raeburn and Gilbert Stuart. His most famous works are two groups of miniatures of George Washington, commissioned by his wife Martha Washington and he received his early training at the Royal Academy schools, London, in 1790. In 1794 he moved to the United States and he took up residence in the nations then-capital, Philadelphia, Pa. According to historian Harry Piers, Field was one of the four most highly sought American miniaturists in his time. Two groups of miniatures of George Washington were produced by Field at Marthas request in late 1800, the first group showing him in civilian dress, the second as general in full uniform. When tensions between America and England started to rise in the lead up to the War of 1812, Field remained a loyalist and moved from Boston to Halifax, in 1816 he moved to Jamaica, settling first in Montego Bay and then in Kingston. He died on 9 August 1819, apparently of yellow fever, endnotes Robert Field, Art Gallery of Nova Scotia 1978 Texts Harry Piers. P. 112-119 Early American portrait painters in miniature by Theodore Bolton,1921 - Robert Field Piers, Harry, Robert Field, Portrait Painter in Oils, Miniature and Water-Colours and Engraver, New York,1927. Works by Robert Field Portrait by Robert Field
15.
Paul Gauguin
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Eugène Henri Paul Gauguin was a French post-Impressionist artist. Underappreciated until after his death, Gauguin is now recognized for his use of color. His work was influential to the French avant-garde and many artists, such as Pablo Picasso. Many of his paintings were in the possession of Russian collector Sergei Shchukin and he was an important figure in the Symbolist movement as a painter, sculptor, printmaker, ceramist, and writer. He was also a proponent of wood engraving and woodcuts as art forms. Gauguin was born in Paris, France to Clovis Gauguin and Alina Maria Chazal on June 7,1848 and his birth coincided with revolutionary upheavals throughout Europe that year. His father, a 34-year-old liberal journalist, came from a family of petit-bourgeoisie entrepreneurs residing in Orléans and he was compelled to flee France when the newspaper for which he wrote was suppressed by French authorities. Gauguins mother, the 22-year-old Aline Marie Chazal, was the daughter of Andre Chazal, an engraver, and Flora Tristan and their union ended when Andre assaulted his wife Flora and was sentenced to prison for attempted murder. Paul Gauguins maternal grandmother, Flora Tristan, was the daughter of Thérèse Laisnay. Details of Thérèses family background are not known, her father, Don Mariano, was a Spanish nobleman, members of the wealthy Tristan Moscoso family held powerful positions in Peru. Nonetheless, Don Marianos unexpected death plunged his mistress and daughter Flora into poverty, when Floras marriage with Andre failed, she petitioned for and obtained a small monetary settlement from her fathers Peruvian relatives. She sailed to Peru in hopes of enlarging her share of the Tristan Moscoso family fortune and this never materialized, but she successfully published a popular travelogue of her experiences in Peru which launched her literary career in 1838. An active supporter of early socialist societies, Gauguins maternal grandmother helped to lay the foundations for the 1848 revolutionary movements, placed under surveillance by French police and suffering from overwork, she died in 1844. Her grandson Paul idolized his grandmother, and kept copies of her books with him to the end of his life. In 1850, Clovis Gauguin departed for Peru with his wife Alina and he died of a heart attack en route, and Alina arrived in Peru a widow with the 18-month-old Paul and his 2 ½ year-old sister, Marie. Gauguins mother was welcomed by her granduncle, whose son-in-law would shortly assume the presidency of Peru. To the age of six, Paul enjoyed an upbringing, attended by nursemaids. He retained a vivid memory of period of his childhood which instilled indelible impressions of Peru that haunted him the rest of his life
16.
Vincent van Gogh
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Vincent Willem van Gogh was a Dutch Post-Impressionist painter who is among the most famous and influential figures in the history of Western art. In just over a decade he created about 2,100 artworks, including around 860 oil paintings and his suicide at 37 followed years of mental illness and poverty. Born into a family, Van Gogh drew as a child and was serious, quiet. As a young man he worked as an art dealer, often travelling and he turned to religion, and spent time as a Protestant missionary in southern Belgium. He drifted in ill health and solitude before taking up painting in 1881 and his younger brother Theo supported him financially, and the two kept up a long correspondence by letter. His early works, mostly still lifes and depictions of peasant labourers, in 1886 he moved to Paris, where he met members of the avant-garde, including Émile Bernard and Paul Gauguin, who were reacting against the Impressionist sensibility. As his work developed he created a new approach to still lifes and his paintings grew brighter in colour as he developed a style that became fully realised during his stay in Arles in the south of France in 1888. During this period he broadened his subject matter to include trees, cypresses, wheat fields. Van Gogh suffered from episodes and delusions and though he worried about his mental stability, he often neglected his physical health, did not eat properly. His friendship with Gauguin ended after a confrontation with a razor and he spent time in psychiatric hospitals, including a period at Saint-Rémy. After he discharged himself and moved to the Auberge Ravoux in Auvers-sur-Oise near Paris and his depression continued and on 27 July 1890, Van Gogh shot himself in the chest with a revolver. He died from his injuries two days later, Van Gogh was unsuccessful during his lifetime, and was considered a madman and a failure. He became famous after his suicide, and exists in the imagination as the quintessential misunderstood genius. His reputation began to grow in the early 20th century as elements of his style came to be incorporated by the Fauves. The most comprehensive source on Van Gogh is the correspondence between him and his younger brother, Theo. Their lifelong friendship, and most of what is known of Vincents thoughts, Theo van Gogh was an art dealer and provided his brother with financial and emotional support, and access to influential people on the contemporary art scene. Theo kept all of Vincents letters to him, Vincent kept few of the letters he received, after both had died, Theos widow Johanna arranged for the publication of some of their letters. A few appeared in 1906 and 1913, the majority were published in 1914, Vincents letters are eloquent and expressive and have been described as having a diary-like intimacy, and read in parts like autobiography
17.
George Bellows
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George Wesley Bellows was born and raised in Columbus, Ohio. He was the child of George Bellows and Anna Wilhelmina Smith Bellows. He was born four years after his parents married, at the ages of fifty and forty and his mother was the daughter of a whaling captain based in Sag Harbor, Long Island, and his family returned there for their summer vacations. He began drawing well before kindergarten, and his elementary–school teachers often asked him to decorate their classroom blackboards at Thanksgiving, at age 10 George decided to become an athlete, and trained himself to become a popular baseball and basketball player. He became good enough at both sports to play ball for years afterward. During his senior year, a scout from the Indianapolis team made him an offer. He declined, opting to enroll at The Ohio State University, there he played for the baseball and basketball teams, and provided illustrations for the Makio, the schools student yearbook. He was encouraged to become a baseball player, and he worked as a commercial illustrator while a student. Despite these opportunities in athletics and commercial art, Bellows desired success as a painter and he left Ohio State in 1904 just before he was to graduate and moved to New York City to study art. Bellows was soon a student of Robert Henri, before the later-famous artist had set up his own famous school, while studying there, Bellows became associated with Henris The Eight and the Ashcan School, a group of artists who advocated painting contemporary American society in all its forms. By 1906, Bellows and fellow art student Edward Keefe had set up a studio at 1947 Broadway Street, Bellows first achieved widespread notice in 1908, when he and other pupils of Henri organized an exhibition of mostly urban studies. While many critics considered these to be painted, others found them welcomely audacious. Bellows taught at the Art Students League of New York in 1909 and his fame grew as he contributed to other nationally recognized juried shows. Bellows urban New York scenes depicted the crudity and chaos of people and neighborhoods. From 1907 through 1915, he executed a series of paintings depicting New York City under snowfall, however, Bellows series of paintings portraying amateur boxing matches were arguably his signature contribution to art history. They are characterized by dark atmospheres, through which the bright, growing prestige as a painter brought changes in his life and work. Though he continued his earlier themes, Bellows also began to receive commissions, as well as social invitations. Additionally, he followed Henris lead and began to summer in Maine, painting seascapes on Monhegan and Matinicus islands
18.
Joseph Stella
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Joseph Stella was an Italian-born American Futurist painter best known for his depictions of industrial America, especially his images of the Brooklyn Bridge. He is also associated with the American Precisionist movement of the 1910s–1940s, Stella was born to a middle-class family in Italy, in Muro Lucano, a village in the province of Potenza. His grandfather Antonio and his father Michele were attorneys, but he came to New York City in 1896 to study medicine, following in the foot steps of his older brother Doctor Antonio Stella. However, he abandoned his medical studies and turned instead to art, studying at the Art Students League. His first paintings were Rembrandtesque depictions of city slum life, a remarkable draftsman, he made drawings throughout the various phases of his career, beginning as an academic realist with a particular interest in immigrant and ethnic life. From 1905 to 1909, he worked as an illustrator, publishing his realist drawings in magazines. He prowled the streets, sketch pad and pencil in hand, alert to catch the pose of the moment, in 1908, he was commissioned for a series on industrial Pittsburgh, later published in The Pittsburgh Survey. Stella returned to Italy in 1909 and he was unhappy with America, writing that he longed to be back in his native land after an enforced stay among enemies, in a black funereal land over which weighed. The curse of a merciless climate and his return to Europe led to his first extensive contact with Modernism which would ultimately mold his distinctive personal style, notable for its strong color and sweeping and dynamic lines. By 1911, he had departed Italy, where the omnipresence of the Renaissance presented its own kind of obstacle for contemporary painters, and relocated to Paris. When he arrived, Fauvism, Cubism, and Futurism were in full swing, he wrote and it was the right place to be, at just the right time, for a man of Stellas curiosity, openness to new trends, and ambition. In Paris, Stella attended the salon of Gertrude Stein, where he met other painters. Found the big and boisterous painter rather like Apollinaire, they both had a fund of wit that was frequently turned on their hosts. in a high. Returning to New York in 1913, he was prepared to give the United States a second try and it was a decision he did not regret, although, as art historian Wanda Corn noted, his culture shock never abated. As a result of associations, he had almost as many opportunities as he had known in Europe to be among kindred spirits. In 1913, he painted Battle of Lights, Coney Island, the legendary Armory Show of 1913, in which he participated, provided him with greater impetus to experiment with modernist styles. Der Rosenkavalier and Spring are vigorous color abstractions, a friend noted that the painting caused a general sensation, an artistic upheaval as sudden and unexpected as it was universal. In New York during the 1920s, Stella became fascinated with the quality of the architecture of Lower Manhattan
19.
Kazimir Malevich
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Kazimir Severinovich Malevich was a Russian painter and art theoretician. He was a pioneer of abstract art and the originator of the avant-garde Suprematist movement. He was a devout Christian mystic who believed the central task of an artist was that of rendering spiritual feeling, Kazimir Malevich was born Kazimierz Malewicz to a Polish family, who settled near Kiev in Kiev Governorate of the Russian Empire during the partitions of Poland. His parents, Ludwika and Seweryn Malewicz, were Roman Catholic like most ethnic Poles and they both had fled from the former eastern territories of the Commonwealth to Kiev in the aftermath of the failed Polish January Uprising of 1863 against the tsarist army. His native language was Polish though he spoke Ukrainian in public, subsequently, Malevich even wrote a series of articles about art in Ukrainian. Kazimirs father managed a sugar factory, Kazimir was the first of fourteen children, only nine of whom survived into adulthood. His family moved often and he spent most of his childhood in the villages of Ukraine, amidst sugar-beet plantations, until age twelve he knew nothing of professional artists, although art had surrounded him in childhood. He delighted in peasant embroidery, and in decorated walls and stoves and he was able to paint in the peasant style. He studied drawing in Kiev from 1895 to 1896, from 1896 to 1904 Kazimir Malevich lived in Kursk. In 1904, after the death of his father, he moved to Moscow and he studied at the Moscow School of Painting, Sculpture, and Architecture from 1904 to 1910 and in the studio of Fedor Rerberg in Moscow. In the same year he participated in an exhibition by the collective, by that time his works were influenced by Natalia Goncharova and Mikhail Larionov, Russian avant-garde painters, who were particularly interested in Russian folk art called lubok. Malevich described himself as painting in a Cubo-Futuristic style in 1912, in March 1913 a major exhibition of Aristarkh Lentulovs paintings opened in Moscow. Already in the year the Cubo-Futurist opera, Victory Over the Sun, with Malevichs stage-set. In 1914 Malevich exhibited his works in the Salon des Indépendants in Paris together with Alexander Archipenko, Sonia Delaunay, Aleksandra Ekster, Malevich also co-illustrated, with Pavel Filonov, Selected Poems with Postscript, 1907–1914 by Velimir Khlebnikov and another work by Khlebnikov in 1914 titled Roar. In 1915, Malevich laid down the foundations of Suprematism when he published his manifesto, in 1915–1916 he worked with other Suprematist artists in a peasant/artisan co-operative in Skoptsi and Verbovka village. In 1916–1917 he participated in exhibitions of the Jack of Diamonds group in Moscow together with Nathan Altman, David Burliuk, Aleksandra Ekster, famous examples of his Suprematist works include Black Square and White On White. Malevich exhibited his first Black Square, now at the Tretyakov Gallery in Moscow, a black square placed against the sun appeared for the first time in the 1913 scenery designs for the Futurist opera Victory over the Sun. The second Black Square was painted around 1923, some believe that the third Black Square was painted in 1929 for Malevichs solo exhibition, because of the poor condition of the 1915 square
20.
Decorative arts
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The decorative arts are arts or crafts concerned with the design and manufacture of beautiful objects that are also functional. It includes interior design, but not usually architecture, the decorative arts are often categorized in opposition to the fine arts, namely, painting, drawing, photography, and large-scale sculpture, which generally have no function other than to be seen. The distinction between the decorative and the arts has essentially arisen from the post-Renaissance art of the West. This distinction is less meaningful when considering the art of other cultures and periods. For example, Islamic art in many periods and places consists entirely of the arts, often using geometric and plant forms. The distinction between decorative and fine arts is not very useful for appreciating Chinese art, and neither is it for understanding Early Medieval art in Europe, large-scale wall-paintings were much less regarded, crudely executed, and rarely mentioned in contemporary sources. They were probably seen as a substitute for mosaic, which for this period must be viewed as a fine art. The term ars sacra is sometimes used for medieval Christian art done in metal, ivory, textiles, illuminated manuscripts have a much higher survival rate, especially in the hands of the church, as there was little value in the materials and they were easy to store. Most European art during the Middle Ages had been produced under a different set of values. The lower status given to works of art in contrast to fine art narrowed with the rise of the Arts and Crafts Movement. This aesthetic movement of the half of the 19th century was born in England and inspired by William Morris. The movement represented the beginning of an appreciation of the decorative arts throughout Europe. Many converts, both professional artists ranks and from among the intellectual class as a whole, helped spread the ideas of the movement. The influence of the Arts and Crafts Movement led to the arts being given a greater appreciation and status in society. Until the enactment of the Copyright Act 1911 only works of art had been protected from unauthorised copying. The 1911 Act extended the definition of a work to include works of artistic craftsmanship
21.
Sculpture
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Sculpture is the branch of the visual arts that operates in three dimensions. It is one of the plastic arts, a wide variety of materials may be worked by removal such as carving, assembled by welding or modelling, or molded, or cast. However, most ancient sculpture was painted, and this has been lost. Those cultures whose sculptures have survived in quantities include the cultures of the ancient Mediterranean, India and China, the Western tradition of sculpture began in ancient Greece, and Greece is widely seen as producing great masterpieces in the classical period. During the Middle Ages, Gothic sculpture represented the agonies and passions of the Christian faith, the revival of classical models in the Renaissance produced famous sculptures such as Michelangelos David. Relief is often classified by the degree of projection from the wall into low or bas-relief, high relief, sunk-relief is a technique restricted to ancient Egypt. Relief sculpture may also decorate steles, upright slabs, usually of stone, techniques such as casting, stamping and moulding use an intermediate matrix containing the design to produce the work, many of these allow the production of several copies. The term sculpture is used mainly to describe large works. The very large or colossal statue has had an enduring appeal since antiquity, another grand form of portrait sculpture is the equestrian statue of a rider on horse, which has become rare in recent decades. The smallest forms of life-size portrait sculpture are the head, showing just that, or the bust, small forms of sculpture include the figurine, normally a statue that is no more than 18 inches tall, and for reliefs the plaquette, medal or coin. Sculpture is an important form of public art, a collection of sculpture in a garden setting can be called a sculpture garden. One of the most common purposes of sculpture is in form of association with religion. Cult images are common in cultures, though they are often not the colossal statues of deities which characterized ancient Greek art. The actual cult images in the innermost sanctuaries of Egyptian temples, of which none have survived, were rather small. The same is true in Hinduism, where the very simple. Some undoubtedly advanced cultures, such as the Indus Valley civilization, appear to have had no monumental sculpture at all, though producing very sophisticated figurines, the Mississippian culture seems to have been progressing towards its use, with small stone figures, when it collapsed. Other cultures, such as ancient Egypt and the Easter Island culture, from the 20th century the relatively restricted range of subjects found in large sculpture expanded greatly, with abstract subjects and the use or representation of any type of subject now common. Today much sculpture is made for intermittent display in galleries and museums, small sculpted fittings for furniture and other objects go well back into antiquity, as in the Nimrud ivories, Begram ivories and finds from the tomb of Tutankhamun
22.
Benjamin West
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Benjamin West PRA was an Anglo-American painter of historical scenes around and after the time of the American War of Independence and the Seven Years War. He was the president of the Royal Academy in London. He was offered a knighthood by the British Crown, but declined it and he said that Art is the representation of human beauty, ideally perfect in design, graceful and noble in attitude. West was born in Springfield, Pennsylvania, in a house that is now in the borough of Swarthmore on the campus of Swarthmore College, as the child of an innkeeper. The family later moved to Newtown Square, Pennsylvania, where his father was the proprietor of the Square Tavern, Benjamin West was an autodidact, while excelling at the arts, he had little education and, even when president of the Royal Academy, could scarcely spell. From 1746 to 1759, West worked in Pennsylvania, mostly painting portraits, while West was in Lancaster in 1756, his patron, a gunsmith named William Henry, encouraged him to paint a Death of Socrates based on an engraving in Charles Rollins Ancient History. His resulting composition, which differs from the source, has been called the most ambitious. During this time West met John Wollaston, a painter who had immigrated from London. West was a friend of Benjamin Franklin, whose portrait he painted. Franklin was the godfather of Wests second son, Benjamin, in common with many artists architects and lovers of the fine arts at that time he conducted a Grand Tour. West expanded his repertoire by copying works of Italian painters such as Titian, in Rome he met a number of international neo-classical artists including German-born Anton Rafael Mengs, Scottish Gavin Hamilton, and Austrian Angelica Kauffman. In August 1763, West arrived in England, on what he intended as a visit on his way back to America. In fact, he never returned to America and he stayed for a month at Bath with William Allen, who was also in the country, and visited his half-brother Thomas West at Reading at the urging of his father. In London he was introduced to Richard Wilson and his student Joshua Reynolds and he moved into a house in Bedford Street, Covent Garden. In 1765 he married Elizabeth Shewell, an American to whom he engaged in Philadelphia. All three prelates commissioned work from him, in 1766 West proposed a scheme to decorate St Pauls Cathedral with paintings. It was rejected by the Bishop of London, but his idea of painting an altarpiece for St Stephen Walbrook was accepted, at around this time he also received acclaim for his classical subjects, such as Orestes and Pylades and The Continence of Scipio. Benjamin West was known in England as the American Raphael and his Raphaelesque painting of Archangel Michael Binding the Devil is in the collection of Trinity College, Cambridge
23.
John Singleton Copley
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John Singleton Copley RA was an American painter, active in both colonial America and England. He was probably born in Boston, Massachusetts, to Richard and Mary Singleton Copley and he is famous for his portrait paintings of important figures in colonial New England, depicting in particular middle-class subjects. His portraits were innovative in their tendency to depict artifacts relating to these individuals lives, Copleys mother owned a tobacco shop on Long Wharf. His father was from Limerick, his mother, of the Singletons of County Clare, Letters from John Singleton, Mrs. Copleys father, are in the Copley-Pelham collection. Richard Copley, described as a tobacconist, is said by biographers to have arrived in Boston in ill health and to have gone, about the time of Johns birth, to the West Indies. William H. Whitmore gives his death as of 1748, the year of Mrs. Copleys remarriage, james Bernard Cullen says, Richard Copley was in poor health on his arrival in America and went to the West Indies to improve his failing strength. No contemporary evidence has been located for either year, except for a family tradition that speaks of his precocity in drawing, nothing is known of Copleys schooling or of the other activities of his boyhood. His letters, the earliest of which is dated September 30,1762, in such a household young Copley may have learned to use the paintbrush and the engravers tools. The family lived next to the occupied by japanner Thomas Johnston and his family. His son, Lord Lyndhurst, wrote that he was entirely self taught, variants of this thesis are found almost everywhere in his earlier letters. They suggest that, while Copley was industrious and an executant, he was physically unadventurous and temperamentally inclined toward brooding. He could have seen at least a few paintings and many good prints in the Boston of his youth. The excellence of his own portraits was not accidental or miraculous and it is a remarkable work to have come from so young a hand. No other engraving has been attributed to Copley, such painting would obviously advertise itself anywhere. Without going after business, for his letters do not indicate that he was ever aggressive or pushy, besides painting portraits in oil, doubtless after a formula learned from Peter Pelham, Copley was a pioneer American pastellist. He wrote, on September 30,1762, to the Swiss painter Jean-Étienne Liotard, the requested pastels were duly received and used by Copley in making many portraits in a medium suited to his talent. By this time he had begun to demonstrate his genius for rendering surface textures and capturing emotional immediacy. Copleys fame was established in England by the exhibition, in 1766, of A Boy with a Squirrel, which depicted his half-brother, Henry Pelham, seated at a table and playing with a pet squirrel
24.
Albert Bierstadt
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Albert Bierstadt was an American painter best known for his lavish, sweeping landscapes of the American West. To paint the scenes, Bierstadt joined several journeys of the Westward Expansion, though not the first artist to record these sites, Bierstadt was the foremost painter of these scenes for the remainder of the 19th century. Born in Germany, Bierstadt was brought to the United States at the age of one by his parents and he later returned to study painting for several years in Düsseldorf. He became part of the Hudson River School in New York and their style was based on carefully detailed paintings with romantic, almost glowing lighting, sometimes called luminism. An important interpreter of the landscape, Bierstadt, along with Thomas Moran, is also grouped with the Rocky Mountain School. Bierstadt was born in Solingen, Germany, the son of Christina M. and Henry Bierstadt, the following year, in 1831, his family moved to New Bedford, Massachusetts. At an early age Bierstadt developed a taste for art and made clever crayon sketches in his youth, in 1851, he began to paint in oils. He returned to Germany in 1853 and studied painting for several years in Düsseldorf with members of its school of painting. After returning to New Bedford in 1857, he taught drawing and painting briefly, in 1858 he exhibited a large painting of a Swiss landscape at the National Academy of Design, which gained him positive critical reception and honorary membership in the Academy. Bierstadt began painting scenes in New England and upstate New York, a group of artists known as the Hudson River School portrayed its majestic landscapes and craggy areas, as well as the light affected by the changing waters. In 1859, Bierstadt traveled westward in the company of Frederick W. Lander and he returned to a studio he had taken at the Tenth Street Studio Building in New York with sketches that resulted in numerous finished paintings. In 1863 he traveled west again, this time in the company of the author Fitz Hugh Ludlow, throughout the 1860s, Bierstadt used studies from this trip as the source for large-scale paintings for exhibition. He continued to visit the American West throughout his career, during the American Civil War, Bierstadt paid for a substitute to serve in his place when he was drafted in 1863. He completed one Civil War painting Guerrilla Warfare, Civil War in 1862, Bierstadts painting was based on a stereoscopic photograph taken by his brother Edward Bierstadt, who operated a photography studio at Langleys Tavern in Virginia. Bierstadts painting received a review when it was exhibited at the Brooklyn Art Association at the Brooklyn Academy of Music in December 1861. In 1860, he was elected a member of the National Academy, he received medals in Austria, Bavaria, Belgium, in 1867 he traveled to London, where he exhibited two landscape paintings in a private reception with Queen Victoria. He traveled through Europe for two years, cultivating social and business contacts to sustain the market for his work overseas, Bierstadts technical proficiency, earned through his study of European landscape, was crucial to his success as a painter of the American West. It accounted for his popularity in disseminating views of the Rocky Mountains to those who had not seen them, the immense canvases he produced after his trips with Lander and Ludlow established him as the preeminent painter of the western American landscape
25.
Frederic Edwin Church
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Frederic Edwin Church was an American landscape painter born in Hartford, Connecticut. Churchs paintings put an emphasis on light and a respect for natural detail. In his later years, Church painted classical Mediterranean and Middle Eastern scenes and cityscapes, Church was the son of Eliza and Joseph Church. The familys wealth came from Churchs father, a silversmith and watchmaker in Hartford, Joseph, in turn, was the son of Samuel Church, who founded the first paper mill in Lee, Massachusetts in the Berkshires. Joseph later became an official and a director of The Aetna Life Insurance Company, the familys wealth allowed Frederic Church to pursue his interest in art from a very early age. At eighteen years of age, Church became the pupil of Thomas Cole in Catskill, New York after Daniel Wadsworth, in May 1849, Church was elected as the youngest Associate of the National Academy of Design and was promoted to Academician the following year. Soon after, he sold his first major work to Hartfords Wadsworth Athenaeum, Church was the product of the second generation of the Hudson River School and the pupil of Thomas Cole, the school’s founder. The Hudson River School was established by the British Thomas Cole when he moved to America and started painting landscapes, mostly of mountains, both Cole and Church were devout Protestants and the latters beliefs played a role in his paintings especially his early canvases. Cole, along with his friend Asher Durand, started school in New York. The paintings were characterized by their focus on traditional American pastoral settings, especially the Catskill Mountains and this style attempted to capture the wild realism of an unsettled America that was quickly disappearing, and the feelings of discovery and appreciation for natural beauty. His American frontier landscapes show the expansionist and optimistic outlook of the United States in the mid-nineteenth century, Church did differ from Cole in the topics of his paintings, he preferred natural and often majestic scenes over Coles propensity towards allegory. Church, like most second generation Hudson River School painters, used extraordinary detail, romanticism, romanticism was prominent in Britain and France in the early 1800s as a counter-movement to the Enlightenment virtues of order and logic. Artists of the Romantic period often depicted nature in idealized scenes that depicted the richness and beauty of nature and this tradition carries on in the works of Frederic Church, who idealizes an uninterrupted nature, highlighted by creating excruciatingly detailed art. The technical skill comes in the form of luminism, a Hudson River School innovation particularly present in Churchs works, luminism is also cited as encompassing several technical aspects, which can be seen in Church’s works. One example is the attempt to “hide brushstrokes, ” which makes the scene more realistic. Most importantly is the emphasis on light in these scenes, the several sources of light create contrast in the pictures that highlights the beauty and detailed imagery in the painting. Church began his career by painting classic Hudson River School scenes of New York and New England, Church’s method consisted of creating paintings in his studio based on sketches created of views in the summer months. In these earlier years of his career, Church’s style was reminiscent of that of his teacher, Thomas Cole, Church’s work was immediately divergent from Cole’s focus on ethereal, almost mythological, scenes, but his early work did resemble Cole’s tone
26.
Frederic Remington
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Remington was born in Canton, New York in 1861 to Seth Pierrepont Remington and Clarissa Clara Bascom Sackrider. His paternal family owned stores and emigrated from Alsace-Lorraine in the early 18th century. His maternal family of the Bascom line was of French Basque ancestry, coming to America in the early 1600s and founding Windsor, Remingtons father was a colonel in the Civil War whose family arrived in America from England in 1637. He was an editor and postmaster, and the family was active in local politics. One of Remingtons great grandfathers, Samuel Bascom, was a saddle maker by trade, Frederic Remington was related by family bloodlines to Indian portrait artist George Catlin and cowboy sculptor Earl W. Bascom. Frederic Remington was also a cousin to Eliphalet Remington, founder of the Remington Arms Company which is considered to be Americas oldest gunmaker and he was related, as well, to three famous mountain men—Jedediah S. Smith, Jonathan T. On the Warner side of his family, Frederic Remington was related to General George Washington, colonel Remington was away at war during most of the first four years of his sons life. After the war, he moved his family to Bloomington, Illinois for a time and was appointed editor of the Bloomington Republican. Remington was the child of the marriage, and received constant attention. He was a child, large and strong for his age, who loved to hunt, swim, ride. He was a student, though, particularly in math. He began to make drawings and sketches of soldiers and cowboys at an early age, Remington took his first drawing lessons at the Institute. He enjoyed making caricatures and silhouettes of his classmates, at sixteen, he wrote to his uncle of his modest ambitions, I never intend to do any great amount of labor. I have but one life and do not aspire to wealth or fame in a degree which could only be obtained by an extraordinary effort on my part. He imagined a career for himself as a journalist, with art as a sideline, Remington attended the art school at Yale University, studying under John Henry Niemeyer. Remington was the student in the first year. He found that football and boxing were more interesting than the art training, particularly drawing from casts. He preferred action drawing and his first published illustration was a cartoon of a football player for the student newspaper Yale Courant
27.
Thomas Eakins
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Thomas Cowperthwait Eakins was an American realist painter, photographer, sculptor, and fine arts educator. He is widely acknowledged to be one of the most important artists in American art history and he painted several hundred portraits, usually of friends, family members, or prominent people in the arts, sciences, medicine, and clergy. Taken en masse, the offer an overview of the intellectual life of Philadelphia in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, individually. These active outdoor venues allowed him to paint the subject which most inspired him, in the process he could model the forms of the body in full sunlight, and create images of deep space utilizing his studies in perspective. Eakins also took a keen interest in the new technologies of motion photography, No less important in Eakins life was his work as a teacher. As an instructor he was an influential presence in American art. Eakins was a figure whose work received little by way of official recognition during his lifetime. Since his death, he has been celebrated by American art historians as the strongest, most profound realist in nineteenth-, Eakins was born and lived most of his life in Philadelphia. He was the first child of Caroline Cowperthwait Eakins, a woman of English and Dutch descent, and Benjamin Eakins, Benjamin Eakins grew up on a farm in Valley Forge, Pennsylvania, the son of a weaver. He was successful in his profession, and moved to Philadelphia in the early 1840s to raise his family. Thomas Eakins observed his father at work and by twelve demonstrated skill in precise line drawing, perspective, and he was an athletic child who enjoyed rowing, ice skating, swimming, wrestling, sailing, and gymnastics—activities he later painted and encouraged in his students. Eakins attended Central High School, the public school for applied science and arts in the city. He studied drawing and anatomy at the Pennsylvania Academy of the Fine Arts beginning in 1861, for a while, he followed his fathers profession and was listed in city directories as a writing teacher. His scientific interest in the body led him to consider becoming a surgeon. Eakins then studied art in Europe from 1866 to 1870, notably in Paris with Jean-Léon Gérôme, being only the second American pupil of the French realist painter, famous as a master of Orientalism. He also attended the atelier of Léon Bonnat, a realist painter who emphasized anatomical preciseness, a method adapted by Eakins. A letter home to his father in 1868 made his aesthetic clear, She is the most beautiful thing there is in the world except a naked man, already at age 24, nudity and verity were linked with an unusual closeness in his mind. Yet his desire for truthfulness was more expansive, and the home to Philadelphia reveal a passion for realism that included, but was not limited to
28.
Winslow Homer
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Winslow Homer was an American landscape painter and printmaker, best known for his marine subjects. He is considered one of the foremost painters in 19th-century America, largely self-taught, Homer began his career working as a commercial illustrator. He subsequently took up oil painting and produced major studio works characterized by the weight and he also worked extensively in watercolor, creating a fluid and prolific oeuvre, primarily chronicling his working vacations. Born in Boston, Massachusetts in 1836, Homer was the second of three sons of Charles Savage Homer and Henrietta Benson Homer, both from long lines of New Englanders and his mother was a gifted amateur watercolorist and Homers first teacher. She and her son had a relationship throughout their lives. Homer took on many of her traits, including her quiet, strong-willed, terse, sociable nature, her dry sense of humor, Homer had a happy childhood, growing up mostly in then rural Cambridge, Massachusetts. He was a student, but his art talent was evident in his early years. Homers father was a volatile, restless businessman who was looking to make a killing. When Homer was thirteen, Charles gave up the store business to seek a fortune in the California gold rush. When that failed, Charles left his family and went to Europe to raise capital for other schemes that didnt materialize. After Homers high school graduation, his father saw a newspaper advertisement, Homers apprenticeship at the age of 19 to J. H. Bufford, a Boston commercial lithographer, was a formative but treadmill experience. He worked repetitively on sheet music covers and other work for two years. By 1857, his career was underway after he turned down an offer to join the staff of Harpers Weekly. From the time I took my nose off that lithographic stone, Homer later stated, I have had no master, Homers career as an illustrator lasted nearly twenty years. His quick success was due to this strong understanding of graphic design. Before moving to New York in 1859, Homer lived in Belmont and his uncles Belmont mansion, the 1853 Homer House, was the inspiration for a number of his early illustrations and paintings, including several of his 1860s croquet pictures. The Homer House, owned by the Belmont Womans Club, is open for public tours, in 1859, he opened a studio in the Tenth Street Studio Building in New York City, the artistic and publishing capital of the United States. Until 1863, he attended classes at the National Academy of Design, and studied briefly with Frédéric Rondel, in only about a year of self-training, Homer was producing excellent oil work
29.
John Singer Sargent
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John Singer Sargent was an American artist, considered the leading portrait painter of his generation for his evocations of Edwardian era luxury. During his career, he created roughly 900 oil paintings and more than 2,000 watercolors, as well as countless sketches and his oeuvre documents worldwide travel, from Venice to the Tyrol, Corfu, the Middle East, Montana, Maine, and Florida. His parents were American, but he was trained in Paris prior to moving to London and his commissioned works were consistent with the grand manner of portraiture, while his informal studies and landscape paintings displayed a familiarity with Impressionism. In later life Sargent expressed ambivalence about the restrictions of formal portrait work and he lived most of his life in Europe. Art historians generally ignored the society such as Sargent until the late 20th century. Before Sargents birth, his father, FitzWilliam, was an eye surgeon at the Wills Eye Hospital in Philadelphia 1844–1854, after Johns older sister died at the age of two, his mother, Mary, suffered a breakdown, and the couple decided to go abroad to recover. They remained nomadic expatriates for the rest of their lives, although based in Paris, Sargents parents moved regularly with the seasons to the sea and the mountain resorts in France, Germany, Italy, and Switzerland. While Mary was pregnant, they stopped in Florence, Tuscany, Sargent was born there in 1856. A year later, his sister Mary was born, after her birth, FitzWilliam reluctantly resigned his post in Philadelphia and accepted his wifes entreaties to remain abroad. They lived modestly on an inheritance and savings, living a quiet life with their children. They generally avoided society and other Americans except for friends in the art world, four more children were born abroad, of whom only two lived past childhood. Although his father was a patient teacher of basic subjects, young Sargent was a rambunctious child, as his father wrote home, He is quite a close observer of animated nature. His mother was convinced that traveling around Europe, and visiting museums and churches. Several attempts to have him formally schooled failed, owing mostly to their itinerant life, Sargents mother was a fine amateur artist and his father was a skilled medical illustrator. Early on, she gave him sketchbooks and encouraged drawing excursions, young Sargent worked with care on his drawings, and he enthusiastically copied images from The Illustrated London News of ships and made detailed sketches of landscapes. FitzWilliam had hoped that his sons interest in ships and the sea might lead him toward a naval career, at thirteen, his mother reported that John sketches quite nicely, & has a remarkably quick and correct eye. If we could afford to give him really good lessons, he would soon be quite a little artist, at the age of thirteen, he received some watercolor lessons from Carl Welsch, a German landscape painter. Although his education was far from complete, Sargent grew up to be a literate and cosmopolitan young man, accomplished in art, music
30.
Edwin Austin Abbey
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Edwin Austin Abbey RA was an American muralist, illustrator, and painter. His most famous set of murals, The Quest of the Holy Grail, Abbey was born in Philadelphia in 1852. He studied art at the Pennsylvania Academy of the Fine Arts under Christian Schuessele, Abbey began as an illustrator, producing numerous illustrations and sketches for such magazines as Harpers Weekly and Scribners Magazine. His illustrations began appearing in Harpers Weekly at an early age and he moved to New York City in 1871. His illustrations were influenced by French and German black and white art. He also illustrated several best-selling books, including Christmas Stories by Charles Dickens, Selections from the Poetry of Robert Herrick, Abbey also illustrated a four-volume set of The Comedies of Shakespeare for Harper & Brothers in 1896. He moved to England in 1878, at the request of his employers, to gather material concerning Robert Herrick, in 1883, he was elected to the Royal Institute of Painters in Water-Colours. About this time, he was appraised critically by the American writer and he was made a full member of the Royal Academy in 1898. In 1902 he was chosen to paint the coronation of King Edward VII and it was the official painting of the occasion and, hence, resides at Buckingham Palace. He did receive a knighthood, although some say he refused it in 1907, friendly with other expatriate American artists, he summered at Broadway, Worcestershire, England, where he painted and vacationed alongside John Singer Sargent at the home of Francis Davis Millet. He completed murals for the Boston Public Library in the 1890s, the frieze for the Library was titled The Quest for the Holy Grail. It took Abbey eleven years to complete this series of murals in his England studio, in 1904 he painted a mural for the Royal Exchange, London Reconciliation of the Skinners & Merchant Taylors Companies by Lord Mayor Billesden,1484. In 1908–09, Abbey began a program of murals and other artworks for the newly completed Pennsylvania State Capitol in Harrisburg. He was working on the Reading of the Declaration of Independence mural in early 1911, studio assistant Ernest Board continued work on the mural with little supervision from Abbey, and with contributions by John Singer Sergeant. Abbey died in August 1911, leaving two rooms of the commission unfinished, the remainder of the work was given to Violet Oakley, who completed the commission from start to finish using her own designs. Abbey was elected to the National Academy of Design, in 1902 and he was a prolific illustrator, and attention to detail, including historical accuracy, influenced successive generations of illustrators. In 1890, Edwin married Gertrude Mead, the daughter of a wealthy New York merchant, mrs Abbey encouraged her husband to secure more ambitious commissions, although with their marriage commencing when both were in their forties, the couple remained childless. After her husbands death, Gertrude was active in preserving her husbands legacy, writing about his work and giving her substantial collection, the scholarships were established to enable British and American painters to pursue their practice
31.
Arthur Dove
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Arthur Garfield Dove was an American artist. An early American modernist, he is considered the first American abstract painter. Dove used a range of media, sometimes in unconventional combinations, to produce his abstractions. Me and the Moon from 1937 is an example of an Arthur Dove abstract landscape and has been referred to as one of the culminating works of his career. Dove did a series of experimental works in the 1920s. Dove was born to a family in Canandaigua, New York. His parents, William George and Anna Elizabeth, were of English ancestry, Arthur Dove grew up loving the outdoors on a farm, however, his father was a very successful businessman who owned a brickyard and expected his son to become wealthy. Doves childhood interests included playing the piano, painting lessons, as a child, he was befriended by a neighbor, Newton Weatherby, a naturalist who helped form Doves appreciation of nature. Weatherby was also a painter who gave Dove pieces of leftover canvas to work with. Dove attended Hobart College and Cornell University, and graduated from Cornell in 1903, Dove was chosen to illustrate the Cornell University yearbook. Doves illustrations proved popular because they brought life to the characters, after graduation, he became a well known commercial illustrator in New York City, working for Harpers Magazine and The Saturday Evening Post. In 1907, Dove and his first wife, Florence, traveled to France and moved to Paris and they made short trips to both Italy and Spain. While there, Dove joined a group of artists from the United States. Dove and Maurer remained friends until Maurers suicide in 1932, while in Europe, Dove was introduced to new painting styles, in particular the Fauvist works of Henri Matisse, and he exhibited at the annual Autumn Salon in 1908 and 1909. Feeling a clearer sense as an artist, he returned to New York and his return to commercial illustration was unsatisfying, so Dove moved out of New York to make a living off farming and fishing while devoting the rest of his time to painting. Dove, was born on July 4,1909, when Dove returned to America in 1909 he met Alfred Stieglitz, probably by way of Maurers written introduction. Stieglitz was a known photographer and gallery owner who was very active in promoting modern art in America. Dove decided to quit working as an illustrator but was in need of artistic identity along with emotional bolstering, the photographer was 16 years older than Dove and his urban, Jewish and European cultural roots were in contrast to Doves rural Anglo-Saxon Protestant heritage
32.
Elizabeth Goodridge
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Elizabeth Goodridge was an American painter who specialized in miniatures. She was the sister of Sarah Goodridge, also an American miniaturist. Goodridge was born in Templeton, Massachusetts, the child and fourth daughter of Ebenezer Goodridge. Elizas earliest miniatures date from the late 1820s and are similar in style to her sisters work, at an early age, she began drawing and showed an aptitude for art. Womens educational opportunities were limited at the time and where Goodridge lived, Goodridge probably began her career in Boston working with her sister, but spent most of her life in the central part of Massachusetts. She lived in Templeton, Massachusetts, and made extended trips to Worcester in the 1830s and 1840s, during which time she lived with. The American Antiquarian Societys portrait collection contains the largest representation –12 images – of Eliza Goodridges known work, the Worcester Art Museum also houses several of Goodridges miniatures. Among Goodridges better-known miniatures are Mrs. Goodridges landscapes include View of Mount Holyoke, Massachusetts,1827, and View of Round Hill, Northampton, Massachusetts,1824, in the Worcester Art Museum. In 1849, at the age of fifty-one, Goodridge married Colonel Ephriam Stone, who owned a general store and sawmill in Templeton
33.
Edward Hopper
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Edward Hopper was a prominent American realist painter and printmaker. While he was most popularly known for his oil paintings, he was proficient as a watercolorist. Both in his urban and rural scenes, his spare and finely calculated renderings reflected his vision of modern American life. Hopper was born in Upper Nyack, New York, a center on the Hudson River north of New York City. He was one of two children of a comfortably well-to-do family and his parents, of mostly Dutch ancestry, were Elizabeth Griffiths Smith and Garret Henry Hopper, a dry-goods merchant. Although not so successful as his forebears, Garrett provided well for his two children with help from his wifes inheritance. Edward and his only sister Marion attended both private and public schools and they were raised in a strict Baptist home. His father had a nature, and the household was dominated by women, Hoppers mother, grandmother, sister. His birthplace and boyhood home was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 2000 and it serves as a nonprofit community cultural center featuring exhibitions, workshops, lectures, performances, and special events. Hopper was a student in grade school and showed talent in drawing at age five. He readily absorbed his fathers intellectual tendencies and love of French and he also demonstrated his mothers artistic heritage. Hoppers parents encouraged his art and kept him supplied with materials, instructional magazines. By his teens, he was working in pen-and-ink, charcoal, watercolor, in 1895, he created his first signed oil painting, Rowboat in Rocky Cove. It shows his early interest in nautical subjects, in his early self-portraits, Hopper tended to represent himself as skinny, ungraceful, and homely. Though a tall and quiet teenager, his sense of humor found outlet in his art. Later in life, he mostly depicted women as the figures in his paintings, in high school, he dreamed of being a naval architect, but after graduation he declared his intention to follow an art career. Hoppers parents insisted that he study commercial art to have a means of income. In developing his self-image and individualistic philosophy of life, Hopper was influenced by the writings of Ralph Waldo Emerson and he later said, I admire him greatly. I read him over and over again
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Hezekiah Augur
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Hezekiah Augur was an early American sculptor and inventor. He was a sculptor and, unlike many other 19th-century sculptors, did not travel to Europe. Augur was born in New Haven, Connecticut, the son of a carpenter, he learned his trade as a woodcarver, carving table legs and other furniture ornament. Borrowing $2,000 from his father, he was invited to join a grocery store business venture, three years later he discovered, to his shock and amazement, that not only was his money gone, but that he owed his partners $7,000. While thus engaged he invented a machine that lifted the financial burdens that he had assumed. Around that time he invented a machine for carving piano legs. He switched to marble later in his career, being among the first native born Americans to do so, augurs bust of Supreme Court Justice Oliver Ellsworth is housed in the Old Supreme Court Chamber in the United States United States Capitol. He died on January 10,1858 in New Haven and is buried in Grove Street Cemetery and he was a member of the Connecticut Academy of Arts and Sciences. Crowell Co, NY, NY1968 Augur, E. P, New York, NY1925 This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain, Gilman, D. C. Thurston, H. T. Colby, F. M. eds. article name needed
35.
Hiram Powers
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Hiram Powers was an American neoclassical sculptor. Powers was born to a farmer on July 29,1805 in Woodstock, when he was 14 years old, his family moved to Ohio, about six miles from Cincinnati, where Powers attended school for about a year while staying with his fathers brother, a lawyer. He began working after the death of his parents, first superintending a reading-room in connection with the hotel of the town. At age 17, Powers became an assistant to Luman Watson, Cincinnatis early wooden clockmaker, using his skill in modeling figures, Powers mastered the construction of the instruments and became the first mechanic in the factory. In 1826 he began to frequent the studio of Frederick Eckstein and his proficiency in modeling secured him the situation of general assistant and artist of the Western Museum, kept by a Louisiana naturalist of French extraction named Joseph Dorfeuille. Here he created representations of scenes in the poem Inferno by Dante, fanny Trollope helped launch his career when she had him sculpt Dantes Commedia. After studying thoroughly the art of modeling and casting, he moved to Washington, Powers drew attention and local commissions in D. C. with his modeled portrait of Andrew Jackson. In 1837 he moved to Italy and settled on the Via Fornace in Florence and he remained in Florence till his death, though he did travel to Britain during this time. During his time in Italy, he developed a friendship with Horatio Greenough and he developed a thriving business in portraiture and fancy parlor busts, but he also devoted his time to creating life-size, full-figure ideal subjects, many of which were also isolated as a bust. In 1839 his statue of Eve won the admiration of the leading European neoclassical sculptor, in 1843 Powers produced his most celebrated statue, The Greek Slave, which at once gave him a place among the leading sculptors of his time. This sculpture was used in the abolitionist cause and copies of it appeared in many Union-supporting state houses, among the best known of his other idealising statues are The Fisher Boy, Il Penseroso, Eve Disconsolate, California, America and The Last of the Tribe. He was elected an Associate Fellow of the American Academy of Arts, the statues and busts Powers carved for Demidoff were exceptional in the quality and purity of the marble employed. Powers became a teacher at the Florence Accademia, one of his sons was the sculptor Preston Powers. Hiram Powers died on June 27,1873, and is buried, in 2007 the Taft Museum of Art, Cincinnati, Ohio presented the first major exhibition devoted to his work, Hiram Powers, Genius in Marble. This is the place of the first solo exhibition of Powers work in Cincinnati in 1842. Hiram Powers Demidoff Fisher Boy, London, ties that Bind, Hiram Powers Greek Slave and Nineteenth-century Marriage. Lynne D. Ambrosini and Rebecca A. G. Reynolds, Hiram Powers, The Last of the Tribes
36.
Horatio Greenough
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Horatio Greenough was an American sculptor best known for his United States government commissions The Rescue and George Washington. The son of David and Elizabeth Bender, he was born in Boston on September 6,1805, into a home with ethics for honesty, Horatio showed an early interest in artistic and mechanical hobbies. Particularly attracted to chalk, around the age of 12 he made a statue of William Penn. Horatio also experimented with clay, which medium he learned from Solomon Willard and he also learned how to carve with marble under instruction from Alpheus Cary. Horatio seemed to have a talent for art, yet his father wasn’t fond of the idea of this as a career for Horatio. In 1814 Horatio Greenough enrolled at Phillips Academy, Andover, there he found a passion in works of antiquity and devoted much of his time to reading literature and works of art. With a plan to study abroad, he learned Italian and French, while attending Harvard he came across his first crucial influence. Washington Allston was more than a mentor, but a friend who enlightened and inspired Horatio. He even molded a bust of Washington, before graduating from Harvard, he sailed to Rome to study art where he met the painter Robert W. Weir, while living on Via Gregoriana. These two became friends and studied together the Renaissance and works of antiquity. Favorites of theirs were the Laocoon group of the Vatican structure galleries, during Horatio’s time spent in Rome, he created many busts, as well as a full-size statue of the Dead Abel, and a portrait of himself. He returned to Boston in May 1827 with Weir, after recovering an attack of malaria and he modeled busts such as Josiah Quincy, president of Harvard, Samuel Appleton and John Jacob Astor. In an attempt to establish a reputation he sought out to make a portrait of President John Quincy Adams. His plan worked as he displayed a style of naturalism in this piece as he did in other works. In 1828 he established a studio in Florence, although Greenough was generally healthy, in December 1852 he contracted a severe fever. On December 18, after two weeks of high fever he died at the age of 47 in Somerville, near Boston. He was elected a Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and his sketchbook is held in the Archives of American Art. In 1828 he was elected into the National Academy of Design as an Honorary Academician and his younger brother was the sculptor Richard Saltonstall Greenough
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William Henry Rinehart
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William Henry Rinehart was a noted American sculptor. He is considered the last important American sculptor to work in the classical style, the son of Israel Rinehart and Mary Rinehart, William Henry Rinehart was born near Union Bridge, Maryland, where he attended school until he was nearly eighteen. He then began to work on his fathers farm, but also became the assistant of a stone-cutter in the neighborhood, in 1855 Rinehart went to Italy to continue his studies. While there he executed two bas-reliefs in marble, Morning and Evening, on his return, two years later, he opened a studio in Baltimore, where he executed numerous busts, a fountain-figure for the main U. S. Post Office in Washington, DC, and two figures, Backwoodsman and Indian, flanking the clock in the House of Representatives Chamber of the U. S. Capitol. In 1858 he settled in Rome where he would live the rest of his life, Rinehart is buried in Baltimores renowned Green Mount Cemetery. Rinehart was financially successful in his lifetime, executing many commissions for wealthy, American patrons often traveled to Italy to meet Rinehart and plan projects for their estates back in America. Rineharts most important patron and sponsor was William T. Walters, William Henry Rinehart left his estate in trust for the teaching of sculpture at the Maryland Institute College of Art. In his name, MICA established the Rinehart School of Sculpture, the Rinehart Schools alumni would include the estimable Hans Schuler, born the year Rinehart died. Bas-reliefs of Morning and Evening, plaster, Smithsonian American Art Museum, Washington, Backwoodsman and Indian, bronze, Monumental Clock, House of Representatives Chamber, U. S. Capitol. Now exhibited in the Capitol crypt, sleeping Children, marble, Sisson tomb, Greenmount Cemetery, Baltimore, Maryland. At least 25 replicas in plaster and marble, woman of Samaria, marble, Corcoran Gallery of Art, Washington, D. C. Marble replica at Metropolitan Museum of Art, leander, marble, Newark Museum, Newark, New Jersey. Marble replica at Chrysler Museum of Art, bust of Mrs. William T. Walters, marble, Walters Art Museum, Baltimore, Maryland. Hero, plaster, Smithsonian American Art Museum, Washington, D. C, antigone Pouring a Libation over the Corpse of Her Brother Polynices, plaster, Smithsonian American Art Museum, Washington, D. C. Marble replica at Metropolitan Museum of Art, taney, bronze, Maryland State House, Annapolis, Maryland. Bronze replica at Mount Vernon Place, Baltimore, Maryland, endymion, plaster, Smithsonian American Art Museum, Washington, D. C. Marble replica at Corcoran Gallery of Art, bronze replica at Rineharts grave in Greenmount Cemetery, Baltimore, Maryland
38.
Chauncey Ives
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Chauncey Bradley Ives was an American sculptor who worked primarily in the Neo-classic style. His best known works are the statues of Jonathan Trumbull. Ives was born in Hamden, Connecticut and at the age of 16 was apprenticed to Rodolphus Northrop and he may also have studied with Hezekiah Augur, another local woodcarver who was a pioneer American marble carver. Shortly thereafter Ives turned to marble carving and began carving portraits, first in Boston, Massachusetts, poor health eventually convinced Ives to move to Europe in 1844, where he ultimately settled in the expatriate artist community there. He was to remain in Italy, after moving to Rome in 1851 for the rest of his life and his final resting place is in the Protestant Cemetery, Rome in Rome. Ives was to revisit the subject of Undine in another work, Ives reputation did not survive much longer than his life. They fit in nicely with the majority of their companions, the work now resided in Lincoln Park, Newark, New Jersey. Ives created many portraits of the known and not so well known persons of his time. Some of these statues and busts include ones of, Thomas Church Brownell, Hartford, Connecticut Roger Sherman, National Statuary Hall Collection, United States Capitol. Noah Webster, William H. Seward, Edward Hitchcock Roger Sherman, Jonathan Trumbull, Jeremiah Day Thomas Day, Rev. Dr. Nathaniel William Taylor, Ithiel Town Frances Pierce & her infant daughter. Rosehill Cemetery, United States, Chicago Like many other Victorian era artists Ives studio in Rome generated a number of works drawn from Greek. Smithsonian Museum of American Art, Washington D. C, New York, NY1925 Thurkow, Fearn, Newarks Sculpture, A Survey of Public Monuments and Memorial Statuary, The Newark Museum Quarterly, Newark Museum Association, Winter 1975 Lauren Keach Lessing. Presiding Divinities, Ideal Sculpture in Nineteenth-Century American Domestic Interiors, Art and the empire city, New York, 1825-1861, an exhibition catalog from The Metropolitan Museum of Art, which contains material on Ives
39.
Alexander Archipenko
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Alexander Porfyrovych Archipenko was a Ukrainian-born American avant-garde artist, sculptor, and graphic artist. Alexander Archipenko was born in Kiev, in 1887, to Porfiry Antonowych Archipenko and Poroskowia Vassylivna Machowa Archipenko, he was the younger brother of Eugene Archipenko. From 1902 to 1905 he attended the Kiev Art School, after which he continued his education in the arts as the student of S. Svyatoslavsky in 1906, in the same year he had an exhibition, together with Alexander Bogomazov, in Kiev. Later that same year he moved to Moscow where he had a chance to exhibit his work in group shows. Archipenko moved to Paris in 1908 and was a resident in the artists colony La Ruche, among émigré Russian artists, Wladimir Baranoff-Rossine, Sonia Delaunay-Terk and Nathan Altman. In 1912 Archipenko had his first personal exhibition at the Museum Folkwang at Hagen in Germany, four of Archipenkos Cubist sculptures, including Family Life and five of his drawings, appeared in the controversial Armory Show in 1913 in New York City. These works were caricatured in the New York World, Archipenko moved to Nice in 1914. In 1920 he participated in Twelfth Biennale Internazionale dellArte di Venezia in Italy, in 1922 Archipenko participated in the First Russian Art Exhibition in the Gallery van Diemen in Berlin together with Aleksandra Ekster, Kazimir Malevich, Solomon Nikritin, El Lissitzky and others. In 1923 he emigrated to the United States, and participated in an exhibition of Russian Paintings and he became a US citizen in 1929. In 1933 he exhibited at the Ukrainian pavilion in Chicago as part of the Century of Progress Worlds Fair, Alexander Archipenko contributed the most to the success of the Ukrainian pavilion. His works occupied one room and were valued at $25,000 dollars, in 1936 Archipenko participated in an exhibition Cubism and Abstract Art in New York as well as numerous exhibitions in Europe and other places in the U. S. He was elected to the American Academy of Arts and Letters in 1962, Alexander Archipenko died on February 25,1964, in New York City. He is interred at Woodlawn Cemetery in The Bronx, New York City, the sculptor Ann Weaver Norton apprenticed with Archipenko for a number of years. O. P. Museum de Fundatie, Zwolle, Netherlands Archipenkos statue of King Solomon, at the University of Pennsylvania campus, dominates the walk from 36th and its creation began in 1964 when, shortly before he died, the artist completed a four–foot sculpture designed for enlargement. His wife oversaw its first casting, in 1968, the 14. 5-foot 1. 5-ton statue was produced. In 1985, it was given to the University by Mr, Cubist in form, it has been described as evoking the feeling of smallness in the face of power that one must have felt standing before King Solomon himself. National Gallery of Art, The Tel Aviv Museum, karshan, Donald H. Archipenko, International Visionary. Alexander Archipenko, A Memorial Exhibition 1967–1969, Александр Архипенко //Прогресс-Традиция,2011,624 стр
40.
Alexander Calder
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Calder’s monumental stationary sculptures are called stabiles. He also produced wire figures, which are like drawings made in space, Alexander Sandy Calder was born in 1898 in Lawnton, Pennsylvania. His actual birthday, however, remains a source of much confusion, according to Calders mother, Nanette, Calder was born on August 22, yet his birth certificate at Philadelphia City Hall, based on a hand-written ledger, stated July 22. When Calders family learned about the certificate, they reasserted with certainty that city officials had made a mistake. His father, Alexander Stirling Calder, was a sculptor who created many public installations. Calders mother was a portrait artist, who had studied at the Académie Julian. She moved to Philadelphia, where she met Stirling Calder while studying at the Pennsylvania Academy of the Fine Arts, Calders parents married on February 22,1895, his sister, Mrs. Margaret Calder Hayes, was instrumental in the development of the UC Berkeley Art Museum. In 1902, Calder posed nude for his father’s sculpture The Man Cub and that same year he also completed his earliest sculpture, a clay elephant. Three years later, Stirling Calder contracted tuberculosis, and Calders parents moved to a ranch in Oracle, Arizona, the children were reunited with their parents in late March 1906 and stayed at the ranch in Arizona until fall of the same year. After Arizona, the Calder family moved to Pasadena, California, the windowed cellar of the family home became Calders first studio and he received his first set of tools. He used scraps of copper wire that he found in the street to make jewelry for his sisters dolls, on January 1,1907, Nanette Calder took her son to the Tournament of Roses Parade in Pasadena, where he observed a four-horse-chariot race. This style of event later became the finale of Calders miniature circus performances, in the fall of 1909, the Calder family moved back to Philadelphia, where Calder briefly attended Germantown Academy, then moved to Croton-on-Hudson, New York. That Christmas, he sculpted a dog and an out of sheet brass as gifts for his parents. The sculptures are three-dimensional and the duck is kinetic because it rocks when gently tapped, in Croton, during his early high school years, Calder was befriended by his fathers painter friend Everett Shinn with whom he built a gravity powered system of mechanical trains. Calder described it, We ran the train on wooden rails held by spikes and we even lit up some cars with candle lights. After Croton, the Calders moved to Spuyten Duyvil to be closer to New York City, while living in Spuyten Duyvil, Calder attended high school in nearby Yonkers. During Calders high school years, the family moved back and forth between New York and California, in each new location, Calders parents reserved cellar space as a studio for their son. Toward the end of period, Calder stayed with friends in California while his parents moved back to New York
41.
Ancient art
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The art of pre-literate societies is normally referred to as Prehistoric art and is not covered here. Due to the religious nature of ancient Ancient Egyptian civilization, many of the great works of ancient Egypt depict gods, goddesses, and Pharaohs. Ancient Egyptian art is characterized by the idea of order, clear and simple lines combined with simple shapes and flat areas of color helped to create a sense of order and balance in the art of ancient Egypt. Ancient Egyptian artists used vertical and horizontal lines to maintain the correct proportions in their work. Political and religious, as well as artistic, order was maintained in Egyptian art. To clearly define the social hierarchy of a situation, figures were drawn to sizes that were based not on their distance from the painters perspective but on relative importance. For instance, the Pharaoh would be drawn as the largest figure in a painting no matter where he was situated, symbolism also played an important role in establishing a sense of order. Symbolism, ranging from the Pharaohs regalia to the symbols of Egyptian gods. Animals were usually also highly symbolic figures in Egyptian art, color, as well, had extended meaning—blue and green represented the Nile and life, yellow stood for the sun god, and red represented power and vitality. The colors in Egyptian artifacts have survived extremely well over the centuries because of Egypts dry climate, despite the stilted form caused by a lack of perspective, ancient Egyptian art is often highly realistic. Ancient Egyptian artists often show a knowledge of anatomy and a close attention to detail. During the 18th Dynasty of Egypt a Pharaoh by the name of Akhenaton took the throne and he formed a monotheistic religion based on the worship of Aten, a sun god. A new style of art was introduced that was more naturalistic than the stylized frieze favored in Egyptian art for the previous 1700 years, after Akhenatons death, however, Egyptian artists reverted to their old styles. Faience that was produced in ancient Egyptian antiquity as early as 3500 BC was in superior to the tin-glazed earthenware of the European 15th century. Ancient Egyptian faience was not made of clay but instead actually of a ceramic composed primarily of quartz, Mesopotamia is often considered the cradle of civilization. Within its boundaries, some of the most ancient civilizations known first developed writing, many civilizations flourished there, leaving behind a rich legacy of ancient art. Widely considered to be the cradle of civilization, Bronze Age Mesopotamia included Sumer, in the Iron Age, it was ruled by the Neo-Assyrian and Neo-Babylonian empires. The indigenous Sumerians and Akkadians dominated Mesopotamia from the beginning of history to the fall of Babylon in 539 BC
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Near East
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The Near East is a geographical term that roughly encompasses Western Asia. Despite having varying definitions within different academic circles, the term was applied to the maximum extent of the Ottoman Empire. The term has fallen into disuse in English and has replaced by the terms Middle East. The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations defines the region similarly, but also includes Afghanistan while excluding the countries of North Africa and the Palestinian territories. Up until 1912 the Ottomans retained a band of territory including Albania, Macedonia and Southern Thrace, the Ottoman Empire, believed to be about to collapse, was portrayed in the press as the sick man of Europe. The Balkan states, with the exception of Bosnia and Albania, were primarily Christian. Starting in 1894 the Ottomans struck at the Armenians on the grounds that they were a non-Muslim people. The Hamidian Massacres aroused the indignation of the entire Christian world, in the United States the now aging Julia Ward Howe, author of the Battle Hymn of the Republic, leaped into the war of words and joined the Red Cross. Relations of minorities within the Ottoman Empire and the disposition of former Ottoman lands became known as the Eastern Question and it now became relevant to define the east of the eastern question. In about the middle of the 19th century Near East came into use to describe part of the east closest to Europe. The term Far East appeared contemporaneously meaning Japan, China, Korea, Indonesia, near East applied to what had been mainly known as the Levant, which was in the jurisdiction of the Ottoman Porte, or government. Those who used the term had little choice about its meaning and they could not set foot on most of the shores of the southern and central Mediterranean from the Gulf of Sidra to Albania without permits from the Ottoman Empire. Some regions beyond the Ottoman Porte were included, one was North Africa west of Egypt. It was occupied by piratical kingdoms of the Barbary Coast, de facto independent since the 18th century, formerly part of the empire at its apogee. Iran was included because it could not easily be reached except through the Ottoman Empire or neighboring Russia, in the 1890s the term tended to focus on the conflicts in the Balkan states and Armenia. The demise of the man of Europe left considerable confusion as to what was to be meant by Near East. It is now used only in historical contexts, to describe the countries of Western Asia from the Mediterranean to Iran. There is, in short, no universally understood fixed inventory of nations and they appear together in the journals of the mid-19th century
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Egypt
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Egypt, officially the Arab Republic of Egypt, is a transcontinental country spanning the northeast corner of Africa and southwest corner of Asia by a land bridge formed by the Sinai Peninsula. Egypt is a Mediterranean country bordered by the Gaza Strip and Israel to the northeast, the Gulf of Aqaba to the east, the Red Sea to the east and south, Sudan to the south, and Libya to the west. Across the Gulf of Aqaba lies Jordan, and across from the Sinai Peninsula lies Saudi Arabia, although Jordan and it is the worlds only contiguous Afrasian nation. Egypt has among the longest histories of any country, emerging as one of the worlds first nation states in the tenth millennium BC. Considered a cradle of civilisation, Ancient Egypt experienced some of the earliest developments of writing, agriculture, urbanisation, organised religion and central government. One of the earliest centres of Christianity, Egypt was Islamised in the century and remains a predominantly Muslim country. With over 92 million inhabitants, Egypt is the most populous country in North Africa and the Arab world, the third-most populous in Africa, and the fifteenth-most populous in the world. The great majority of its people live near the banks of the Nile River, an area of about 40,000 square kilometres, the large regions of the Sahara desert, which constitute most of Egypts territory, are sparsely inhabited. About half of Egypts residents live in areas, with most spread across the densely populated centres of greater Cairo, Alexandria. Modern Egypt is considered to be a regional and middle power, with significant cultural, political, and military influence in North Africa, the Middle East and the Muslim world. Egypts economy is one of the largest and most diversified in the Middle East, Egypt is a member of the United Nations, Non-Aligned Movement, Arab League, African Union, and Organisation of Islamic Cooperation. Miṣr is the Classical Quranic Arabic and modern name of Egypt. The name is of Semitic origin, directly cognate with other Semitic words for Egypt such as the Hebrew מִצְרַיִם, the oldest attestation of this name for Egypt is the Akkadian
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Greece
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Greece, officially the Hellenic Republic, historically also known as Hellas, is a country in southeastern Europe, with a population of approximately 11 million as of 2015. Athens is the capital and largest city, followed by Thessaloniki. Greece is strategically located at the crossroads of Europe, Asia, situated on the southern tip of the Balkan peninsula, it shares land borders with Albania to the northwest, the Republic of Macedonia and Bulgaria to the north, and Turkey to the northeast. Greece consists of nine regions, Macedonia, Central Greece, the Peloponnese, Thessaly, Epirus, the Aegean Islands, Thrace, Crete. The Aegean Sea lies to the east of the mainland, the Ionian Sea to the west, the Cretan Sea and the Mediterranean Sea to the south. Greece has the longest coastline on the Mediterranean Basin and the 11th longest coastline in the world at 13,676 km in length, featuring a vast number of islands, eighty percent of Greece is mountainous, with Mount Olympus being the highest peak at 2,918 metres. From the eighth century BC, the Greeks were organised into various independent city-states, known as polis, which spanned the entire Mediterranean region and the Black Sea. Greece was annexed by Rome in the second century BC, becoming a part of the Roman Empire and its successor. The Greek Orthodox Church also shaped modern Greek identity and transmitted Greek traditions to the wider Orthodox World, falling under Ottoman dominion in the mid-15th century, the modern nation state of Greece emerged in 1830 following a war of independence. Greeces rich historical legacy is reflected by its 18 UNESCO World Heritage Sites, among the most in Europe, Greece is a democratic and developed country with an advanced high-income economy, a high quality of life, and a very high standard of living. A founding member of the United Nations, Greece was the member to join the European Communities and has been part of the Eurozone since 2001. Greeces unique cultural heritage, large industry, prominent shipping sector. It is the largest economy in the Balkans, where it is an important regional investor, the names for the nation of Greece and the Greek people differ from the names used in other languages, locations and cultures. The earliest evidence of the presence of human ancestors in the southern Balkans, dated to 270,000 BC, is to be found in the Petralona cave, all three stages of the stone age are represented in Greece, for example in the Franchthi Cave. Neolithic settlements in Greece, dating from the 7th millennium BC, are the oldest in Europe by several centuries and these civilizations possessed writing, the Minoans writing in an undeciphered script known as Linear A, and the Mycenaeans in Linear B, an early form of Greek. The Mycenaeans gradually absorbed the Minoans, but collapsed violently around 1200 BC and this ushered in a period known as the Greek Dark Ages, from which written records are absent. The end of the Dark Ages is traditionally dated to 776 BC, the Iliad and the Odyssey, the foundational texts of Western literature, are believed to have been composed by Homer in the 7th or 8th centuries BC. With the end of the Dark Ages, there emerged various kingdoms and city-states across the Greek peninsula, in 508 BC, Cleisthenes instituted the worlds first democratic system of government in Athens
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Etruria
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Etruria was a region of Central Italy, located in an area that covered part of what are now Tuscany, Lazio, and Umbria. Such trade occurred either directly with Egypt, or through intermediaries such as Greek or Phoenician sailors, the Grand Duchy of Tuscany styled itself in Latin as Magnus Ducatus Etruriae. The name Etruria was also applied to the Kingdom of Etruria, a particularly noteworthy work dealing with Etruscan locations is D. H. Lawrences Sketches of Etruscan Places and other Italian essays. Etruscan was the language for meetings. When Etruria was conquered by the Roman Republic, Latin became the official language, cities and Cemeteries of Etruria, by George Dennis, an overview of Etruscan civilisation
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Rome
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Rome is a special comune and the capital of Italy. Rome also serves as the capital of the Lazio region, with 2,873,598 residents in 1,285 km2, it is also the countrys largest and most populated comune and fourth-most populous city in the European Union by population within city limits. It is the center of the Metropolitan City of Rome, which has a population of 4.3 million residents, the city is located in the central-western portion of the Italian Peninsula, within Lazio, along the shores of the Tiber. Romes history spans more than 2,500 years, while Roman mythology dates the founding of Rome at only around 753 BC, the site has been inhabited for much longer, making it one of the oldest continuously occupied sites in Europe. The citys early population originated from a mix of Latins, Etruscans and it was first called The Eternal City by the Roman poet Tibullus in the 1st century BC, and the expression was also taken up by Ovid, Virgil, and Livy. Rome is also called the Caput Mundi, due to that, Rome became first one of the major centres of the Italian Renaissance, and then the birthplace of both the Baroque style and Neoclassicism. Famous artists, painters, sculptors and architects made Rome the centre of their activity, in 1871 Rome became the capital of the Kingdom of Italy, and in 1946 that of the Italian Republic. Rome has the status of a global city, Rome ranked in 2014 as the 14th-most-visited city in the world, 3rd most visited in the European Union, and the most popular tourist attraction in Italy. Its historic centre is listed by UNESCO as a World Heritage Site, monuments and museums such as the Vatican Museums and the Colosseum are among the worlds most visited tourist destinations with both locations receiving millions of tourists a year. Rome hosted the 1960 Summer Olympics and is the seat of United Nations Food, however, it is a possibility that the name Romulus was actually derived from Rome itself. As early as the 4th century, there have been alternate theories proposed on the origin of the name Roma. There is archaeological evidence of occupation of the Rome area from approximately 14,000 years ago. Evidence of stone tools, pottery and stone weapons attest to about 10,000 years of human presence, several excavations support the view that Rome grew from pastoral settlements on the Palatine Hill built above the area of the future Roman Forum. Between the end of the age and the beginning of the Iron age. However, none of them had yet an urban quality, nowadays, there is a wide consensus that the city was gradually born through the aggregation of several villages around the largest one, placed above the Palatine. All these happenings, which according to the excavations took place more or less around the mid of the 8th century BC. Despite recent excavations at the Palatine hill, the view that Rome has been indeed founded with an act of will as the legend suggests in the middle of the 8th century BC remains a fringe hypothesis. Traditional stories handed down by the ancient Romans themselves explain the earliest history of their city in terms of legend and myth
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