1.
Swaledale
–
Swaledale is one of the northernmost dales in the Yorkshire Dales National Park in northern England. It is the dale of the River Swale on the east side of the Pennines in North Yorkshire. Swaledale runs broadly from west to east, from the moors on the Cumbria–Yorkshire boundary at the watershed of Northern England to the market town of Richmond. Nine Standards Rigg, the prominent ridge with nine ancient tall cairns, to the south and east of the ridge a number of smaller dales join to form the narrow valley of upper Swaledale at the small village of Keld. From there, the valley runs south then turns east at Thwaite to broaden progressively as it passes Muker, Gunnerside, Low Row, Healaugh. The Pennine valley ends at Richmond, where an important medieval castle still watches the important ford from the top of a cliff. Below Richmond, the valley sides flatten out and the Swale flows across lowland farmland to meet the Ure just east of Boroughbridge at a point known as Swale Nab, the Ure becomes the Ouse, and eventually the Humber. From the north, Arkengarthdale and its river the Arkle Beck join Swaledale at Reeth, to the south, Wensleydale, home of the famous Wensleydale cheese, runs parallel with Swaledale. The two dales are separated by a ridge including Great Shunner Fell, and joined by the road over Buttertubs Pass, the upper parts of the dale are particularly striking because of its large old limestone field barns and its profusion of wild flowers. The latter are thanks to the return to the practice of leaving the cutting of grass for hay or silage until wild plants have had a chance to seed. Occasionally visible from the valley bottom road are the slowly fading fellside scars of the 18th and 19th century lead mining industry, ruined stone mine buildings remain, taking on the same colours as the landscape into which they are crumbling. Swaledale is home to small but beautiful waterfalls, such as Richmond Falls, Kisdon Force. Sheep-farming has always been central to life in Swaledale, which has lent its name to a breed of round-horned sheep. Traditional Swaledale products are woollens and Swaledale cheese, which was made from ewe’s milk. These days it is made from cow’s milk, during the 19th century, a major industry in the area was lead mining. Today, tourism has become important, and Swaledale attracts thousands of visitors a year and it is very popular with walkers, particularly because the Coast to Coast Walk passes along it. In May and June every year, Swaledale hosts the two-week-long Swaledale Festival, which combines a celebration of small-scale music, Swaledale Festival Swaledale Museum Swaledale and Arkengarthdale Archaeology Group
Swaledale
–
Swaledale
Swaledale
–
Fields Swaledale Gunnerside
Swaledale
–
Swaledale at East
Applegarth, near
Richmond
2.
Carboniferous Limestone
–
These rocks formed between 363 and 325 million years ago. Within England and Wales, the entire limestone succession, which includes subordinate mudstones, within Great Britain the suite of rocks known traditionally as the Carboniferous Limestone Series was deposited as marine sediments in three distinct ‘provinces’ separated by contemporary landmasses. One of these landmasses was the Wales-London-Brabant Massif, an east-west aligned belt of land stretching through central Wales and these rocks continue eastwards at depth beneath Oxfordshire. It is characterised by the presence of numerous ‘blocks’ and ‘basins’ each with its own particular depositional style, to the north of the Southern Uplands are the limestones of the Scottish Midland Valley stretching from Ayrshire and Arran in the west to Fife, Lothian and Berwickshire in the east. Though of Carboniferous age, the limestones of this Scottish province are not assigned to the Carboniferous Limestone Supergroup, the Carboniferous Limestone is widespread throughout Ireland. The Carboniferous Limestone is a significant landscape-forming rock unit in each of the provinces of Great Britain within which it is found. It forms prominent headlands such as those of Stackpole Head and Lydstep Point and it is here referred to as the ‘north crop’ as distinct from a sub-parallel outcrop, the ‘south crop’ which defines the southern rim of the South Wales Coalfield. The outcrop continues through Ystradfellte to Pontneddfechan, Penderyn and Pontsticill and it then runs near the southern margin of the national park via Trefil and the Llangattock escarpment to Blorenge where it turns southwards. A very narrow ‘east crop’ and ‘south crop’ run by Cwmbran and it turns west again to meet Swansea Bay at Porthcawl. West of the bay, the forms the renowned southern coast of Gower between Mumbles Head and Worms Head. There are further occurrences in the Vale of Glamorgan, both inland and on the coast, an important outlier is that of the Forest of Dean basin which forms the cliffs of the Wye Valley, straddling the England/Wales border and extends southwestwards through Chepstow to Undy. The larger part of the Mendip Hills are formed from Carboniferous Limestone, showing notable geomorphological features, including Cheddar Gorge, Burrington Combe, the Avon Gorge west of Bristol and the coastal cliffs at Clevedon and Weston-super-Mare are cut in this rock. The limestone islands of Flat Holm and Steep Holm are prominent in views across the mouth of the Severn Estuary, there are limited outcrops on the Isle of Man and more extensive ones in Anglesey notably along the Menai Strait, around Benllech and towards Puffin Island. The Carboniferous Limestone belt extends eastwards to from the Great Orme at Llandudno, the neighbouring Little Orme, there are a few outcrops in Shropshire such as Titterstone Clee Hill and at Little Wenlock. The White Peak is named for the limestone which characterises the heart of the Peak District and through deep gorges have been cut by rivers such as the Wye, Dove. The limestone is concealed beneath younger rocks to the east and west, to the north the limestone is exposed once again in east Lancashire and in the Yorkshire Dales. An outcrop extends from Kirkby Stephen along the side of the Vale of Eden. North again, it is a major landscape forming feature in the North Pennines, there are scattered outcrops along the north coast of the Solway Firth
Carboniferous Limestone
–
Carboniferous Limestone exposed at
Ogmore-by-Sea, Wales. Carboniferous/Jurassic unconformity.
Carboniferous Limestone
–
Carboniferous Limestone exposed at
Tedbury Camp, Somerset, England.
Carboniferous Limestone
–
Cross-section of Carboniferous Limestone bored by Jurassic organisms; borings include
Gastrochaenolites (some with boring
bivalves in place) and
Trypanites;
Mendip Hills, England; scale bar = 1 cm.
Carboniferous Limestone
–
Carboniferous coral, Ingleton.
3.
Panoramic image
–
A panorama is any wide-angle view or representation of a physical space, whether in painting, drawing, photography, film, seismic images or a three-dimensional model. The word was coined in the 18th century by the English painter Robert Barker to describe his panoramic paintings of Edinburgh. The motion-picture term panning is derived from panorama, a panoramic view is also purposed for multi-media, cross-scale applications to an outline overview along and across repositories. This so-called cognitive panorama is a view over, and a combination of. The device of the panorama existed in painting, particularly in murals, as early as 20 A. D. in those found in Pompeii, cartographic experiments during the Enlightenment era preceded European panorama painting and contributed to a formative impulse toward panoramic vision and depiction. In the mid-19th century, panoramic paintings and models became a popular way to represent landscapes, topographic views. Audiences of Europe in this period were thrilled by the aspect of illusion, immersed in a winding 360 degree panorama, the panorama was a 360-degree visual medium patented under the title Apparatus for Exhibiting Pictures by the artist Robert Barker in 1787. The earliest that the word appeared in print was on June 11,1791 in the British newspaper The Morning Chronicle. The inaugural exhibition, a View of Edinburgh, was first shown in that city in 1788, by 1793, Barker had built The Panorama rotunda at the center of Londons entertainment district in Leicester Square, where it remained until closed in 1863. Large scale installations enhance the illusion for an audience of being surrounded with a real landscape, the Bourbaki Panorama in Lucerne, Switzerland was created by Edouard Castres in 1881. The painting measures about 10 metres in height with a circumference of 112 meters, in the United States of America is the Atlanta Cyclorama, depicting the Civil War Battle of Atlanta. It was first displayed in 1887, and is 42 feet high by 358 feet circumference, also on a gigantic scale, and still extant, is the Racławice Panorama located in Wrocław, Poland, which measures 15 x 120 metres. In addition to historical examples, there have been panoramas painted and installed in modern times, prominent among these is the Velaslavasay Panorama in Los Angeles. Panoramic photography soon came to painting as the most common method for creating wide views. Not long after the introduction of the Daguerreotype in 1839, photographers began assembling multiple images of a view into a wide image. Pinhole cameras of a variety of constructions can be used to make panoramic images and this generates an egg-shaped image with more than 180° view. They could run autonomously with silent synchronization pulses to control projector advance and fades, precisely overlapping slides placed in slide mounts with soft-edge density masks would merge seamlessly on the screen to create the panorama. Cutting and dissolving between sequential images generated animation effects in the panorama format, digital photography of the late twentieth century greatly simplified this assembly process, which is now known as image stitching
Panoramic image
–
Panorama of the inner courtyard of the
Great Mosque of Kairouan, in Tunisia
Panoramic image
–
A panorama of London by
Robert Barker, 1792
Panoramic image
–
360 degree panorama picture of the center courtyard of the Sony Center at the Potsdamer Platz in Berlin. This picture was calculated from 126 individual photos using autostitch
Panoramic image
–
Panoramic view of the antennas of the
Atacama Large Millimeter Array under the clear sky over the Chajnantor Plateau, in the Chilean Andes.
4.
Malham
–
Malham is a village and civil parish in the Craven district of North Yorkshire, England. Before 20th century boundary changes, the village was part of the Settle Rural District, in the Domesday Book, the name is given as Malgun, meaning settlement by the gravelly places. In 2001 the parish had a population of approximately 150, Malham parish increased in size geographically and so at the 2011 Census had a population of 238. Malham lies at the end of the valley of the River Aire, known above Airton as Malhamdale. The surrounding countryside is known for its limestone pavements and other examples of limestone scenery. Tourist attractions include Malham Tarn, Malham Cove, Gordale Scar, Janets Foss, the village hosts an annual agricultural and horticultural show on the Saturday before the August Bank Holiday. Known as the Malham Show, it has competitions for everything from Lego models to fell running, another major annual event is the Malham Safari, when the villagers and particularly the local school build sculptures around the village. This event attracts tourists and stalls are put up on the green. Malham is a popular walkers destination, the footpaths in the area are maintained by the Yorkshire Dales National Park Authority. In the village there is a National Park Information Centre and a car park. The Pennine Way long distance path passes through the village, nearby natural landmarks include Malham Cove, Malham Tarn, Gordale Scar and Janets Foss. The Malham Show Fell Race course runs over the nearby 301-metre Cawden, in May 2006, it was reported that a covert listening device was discovered hidden in the local parish hall, leaving the villagers baffled. The electronic transmitter was found in a wall socket during a safety inspection at Malham village hall, Part of Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows Part 1 was filmed around the Malham Cove limestone pavement. In the 1950s the village gave its name to a Ham class minesweeper, Malham has a joint parish council, Kirkby Malhamdale Parish Council, with the parishes of Malham Moor, Kirkby Malham and Hanlith. Malham has an Oceanic climate, but is generally colder and wetter than most settlements in Britain and it has a relatively low altitude of around 200 metres, but is partly surrounded by fells. This exposed position means the range is limited, due to little pooling of cold air. Extremes of temperature range from 28.2 °C during August 1990, Malham Tarn Field Studies Centre Village and area web site Malham and district information/history pages
Malham
–
Malham is surrounded by stone-walled pastures
Malham
–
Ford
Malham
–
Small bridge
5.
Ingleborough
–
Ingleborough is the second-highest mountain in the Yorkshire Dales, at 723 metres. It is one of the Yorkshire Three Peaks, the two being Whernside, at 736 metres, and Pen-y-ghent, at 694 metres. Ingleborough is frequently climbed as part of the Yorkshire Three Peaks Challenge, if done anti-clockwise Ingleborough is the last mountain climbed, and ascent is from Chapel-le-Dale. The second part of the name Ingleborough is derived from the Old English word burh, meaning a place, in this case. On the top of Ingleborough the remains of an old walled enclosure have been discovered inside which foundations of Iron Age huts have been found. Ingleborough is situated in the corner of the Yorkshire Dales, being at the highest point of a large triangle of land with corners at Ingleton, Ribblehead. The hill is connected to its nearest higher neighbour, Whernside, Ingleborough throws out a ridge to the north-east which develops into a summit, Simon Fell, and another summit further down, Park Fell. On the slopes of the former are the famed Norber Boulders, continuing south-east the high land is broken by a divide which carries the minor road from Austwick to Helwith Bridge. On the other side of the divide rises the low summit of Smearsett Scar along with its subsidiaries, Pot Scar and Giggleswick Scar, on the western side of Ingleborough is a large limestone plateau appropriately known as White Scars, below which White Scar Caves run for 4 miles. The entrance series of these has developed as a show cave. The plateau is bounded by Raven Scar, the longest unbroken cliff in the district, on the southern side is a similar plateau, this one containing potholes such as Fluted Hole and Pillar Hole. The plateau to the north of Norber, a known as The Allotment, is particularly rich in potholes, one of these, Long Kin East, can be followed by all. Also located here is Juniper Gulf, which descends 420 feet underground through an arduous rift, the Smearsett Scar region is not devoid of interesting features either, here can be found the Celtic Wall, the Ebbing and Flowing Well and a glacial hollow known as the Happy Valley. There are several popular hillwalking routes to its summit, the most frequently-used starting point is probably the village of Ingleton, which lies about 4 miles to the southwest. An ascent from here is about 7 1⁄2 miles there and back, the route follows a walled lane, Fell Lane, before emerging onto a flat area, Crina Bottom, scattered with potholes including the considerable Quaking Pot. A steep climb through the limestone cliffs leads to the summit, the hill may also be climbed from Horton in Ribblesdale 6 miles to the east, following a route crossing extensive areas of limestone pavement in the region of Sulber Nick. This is the route of descent of the Three Peaks Walk and has been improved by the National Trust after going in just thirty years from no path at all to a serious example of footpath erosion. Another route on this flank is from the farmstead of Crummack
Ingleborough
–
Ingleborough, as seen from Tatham Fells
Ingleborough
–
The unassuming but cavernous Juniper Gulf
Ingleborough
–
The
trig point and windshelter
Ingleborough
–
Ingleborough seen on the ascent of
Simon Fell
6.
Pennines
–
The Pennines /ˈpɛnaɪnz/, also known as the Pennine Chain or Pennine Hills, are a range of mountains and hills in Northern England separating North West England from Yorkshire and North East England. The Pennines are an important water catchment area with numerous reservoirs in the streams of the river valleys. The region is considered to be one of the most scenic areas of the United Kingdom. The North Pennines and Nidderdale are designated Areas of Outstanding Natural Beauty, as are Bowland, parts of the Pennines are incorporated into the Peak District National Park, the Yorkshire Dales National Park and the Northumberland National Park. Britains oldest long-distance footpath, the Pennine Way, runs along most of the Pennine Chain and is 268 miles long, various etymologies have been proposed treating Pennine as though it were a native Brittonic/Modern Welsh name related to pen-. He found that the derivation from Bertram was widely believed and considered uncomfortable, in fact, he found repeated comparisons going back at least as early as Camden, many of whose placenames and ideas Bertram incorporated into his work. Bertram was responsible with popularizing the name against other such as Daniel Defoes English Andes. His own form of the name was the Pennine Alps, which today is used for a section of the continental Alps. Those mountains derive their name from the Latin Alpes Pœninæ, the St Bernard Pass whose name has been derived from the Carthaginians, a local god. This was also the used in the invasions of Italy by the Gallic Boii. Various towns and geographical features within the Pennines retain Celtic names, including Penrith, the fell Pen-y-ghent, the River Eden, more commonly, local names result from later Anglo-Saxon and Norse settlements. In Yorkshire and Cumbria, many words of Norse origin, not commonly used in standard English, are part of speech, for example, gill/ghyll, beck, fell. This is located within parts of Cumbria, southern parts of Northumberland. This is within parts of Yorkshire and eastern parts of Derbyshire with foothills also continuing into western parts of Nottinghamshire. This is within the Stoke-on-Trent conurbation of northern Staffordshire and the parts of Derbyshire above the city of Derby. Apart from the uplands in the Lake District fringes, other Cumbrian Fells, the Pennines have been carved from a series of geological structures whose overall form is a broad anticline whose axis extends in a north–south direction. The North Pennines are coincident with the Alston Block, whilst the Yorkshire Dales are coincident with the Askrigg Block, in the south the Peak District is essentially a flat-topped dome. Each of these consists of Carboniferous limestone overlain with Millstone Grit
Pennines
–
Scenery in the
Forest of Bowland
Pennines
–
Stanage Edge in the
Peak District
Pennines
–
Limestone scenery:
Thor's Cave, Staffordshire, from the Manifold Way. Limestone is common in the White Peak and Yorkshire Dales, making those areas distinct from other parts of the Pennines.
7.
Northern England
–
Northern England or the North of England, also known as the North Country or simply the North, is the northern part of England, when considered as a single cultural area. The area roughly spans from the River Trent and River Dee to the Scottish border in the north, Northern England roughly comprises three statistical regions, the North East, North West and Yorkshire and the Humber. These have a population of around 14.9 million as of the 2011 Census. The region has been controlled by groups from the Brigantes. After the Norman conquest in 1066, the Harrying of the North brought destruction, a Council of the North was in place during the Late Middle Ages until the Commonwealth after the Civil War. The area experienced Anglo–Scottish border fighting until the unification of Britain under the Stuarts, in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, the economy of the North was dominated by heavy industry such as weaving, shipbuilding, steelmaking and mining. The deindustrialisation that followed in the half of the 20th century hit Northern England hard. For government and statistical purposes, Northern England is defined as the covered by the three statistical regions of North East England, North West England and Yorkshire and the Humber. This definition will be used in article, except when otherwise stated. Using historic county boundaries, the North is generally taken to comprise Cumberland, Northumberland, Westmorland, County Durham, Lancashire and Yorkshire, the Isle of Man is occasionally included in definitions of the North, although it is politically and culturally distinct from England. Additionally, some areas of Derbyshire and Nottinghamshire have been associated with the North. The geographer Danny Dorling includes most of the West Midlands and part of the East Midlands in his definition of the North, conversely, more restrictive definitions also exist, typically based on the extent of the historical Northumbria, which exclude Cheshire and Lincolnshire. Personal definitions of the North vary greatly and are sometimes passionately debated, when asked to draw a dividing line between North and South, Southerners tend to draw this line further south than Northerners do. Various towns have been described as or promoted themselves as the gateway to the North, including Crewe, Stoke-on-Trent, through the North of England run the Pennines, an upland chain often referred to as the backbone of England. This stretches from the Cheviot Hills on the border with Scotland to the Peak District, the geography of the North has been heavily shaped by the ice sheets of the Pleistocene era, which often reached as far south as the Midlands. On the other side of the Pennines, a glacial lake forms the Humberhead Levels, a large area of fenland which drains into the Humber. This has left the North a region of contrasts, the Lake District includes Englands highest peak, Scafell Pike, which rises to 978 m, its largest lake, Windermere, and its deepest lake, Wastwater. However, dense areas have emerged along the coasts and rivers
Northern England
–
St Bees Head, the most westerly point of Northern England
Northern England
–
Counties of northern England shown within
Great Britain, as defined by HM Revenue and Customs.
Northern England
–
Angel of the North
Northern England
–
The flat cap stereotypically associated with Northern England and still worn today.
8.
Historic counties of England
–
The historic counties of England were established for administration by the Normans, in most cases based on earlier kingdoms and shires established by the Anglo-Saxons and others. They ceased to be used for administration with the creation of the counties in 1889. They are alternatively known as ancient counties or traditional counties, where they are not included among the modern counties of England they are also known as former counties. Counties were used initially for the administration of justice, collection of taxes and organisation of the military and they continue to form the basis of modern local government in many parts of the country away from the main urban areas, although sometimes with considerably altered boundaries. The name of a county often gives a clue to how it was formed, either as a division took its name from a centre of administration. The majority of English counties are in the first category, with the name formed by combining the central town with the suffix -shire, for example Yorkshire. Former kingdoms, which became earldoms in the united England did not feature this formulation, so for Kent, Counties ending in the suffix -sex are also in this category and are former Saxon kingdoms. Many of these names are formed from compass directions, the third category includes counties such as Cornwall and Devon where the name corresponds to the tribes who inhabited the area. County Durham is anomalous in terms of naming and origin, not falling into any of the three categories, instead it was a diocese that was turned into the County Palatine of Durham, ruled by the Bishop of Durham. The expected form would otherwise be Durhamshire, but it was rarely used, there are customary abbreviations for many of the counties. In most cases these consist of simple truncation, usually with an s at the end signifying shire, some abbreviations are not obvious, such as Salop for Shropshire, Oxon for Oxfordshire, Hants for Hampshire and Northants for Northamptonshire. Counties were often prefixed with County of in official contexts, such as County of Kent and those counties named after central towns lost the -shire suffix, for example Yorkshire would be known as County of York. This usage was sometimes followed even where there was no town by that name, the -shire suffix was also appended for some counties, such as Devonshire, Dorsetshire and Somersetshire, despite their origin. There is still a Duke of Devonshire, Great Britain was first divided into administrative areas by the Romans, most likely following major geographical features such as rivers. Before their arrival there were distinct tribal areas, but they were in a constant state of flux as territory was gained, the areas that would later form the English counties started to take shape soon afterwards, with the Kingdom of Kent founded by settlers around 445. Once the Kingdom of England was united as a whole in 927 it became necessary to subdivide it for convenience and to this end. The whole kingdom was divided into shires by the time of the Norman conquest, robert of Gloucester accounts for thirty-five shires and William of Malmesbury thirty-two, Henry of Huntingdon, thirty-seven. In most cases the counties or shires in medieval times were administered by a sheriff on behalf of the monarch, after the Norman conquest the sheriff was replaced and the shires became counties, or areas under the control of a count, in the French manner
Historic counties of England
–
Map of the English and Welsh counties in 1824
Historic counties of England
–
Counties of England in 1851 with major rivers, the
ridings of Yorkshire, and the
remaining exclaves shown
Historic counties of England
–
This (rather inaccurate) 1814 map shows
Dudley in a
detached part of
Worcestershire surrounded by
Staffordshire. Note the detached portion of
Shropshire (the parish of
Halesowen), just to the south-east and part of Staffordshire (
Broome and
Clent) to the south-west as well.
Historic counties of England
–
The ancient county boundaries of
Warwickshire covered a larger area than the county in 1974 (in green).
9.
Yorkshire
–
Yorkshire, formally known as the County of York, is a historic county of Northern England and the largest in the United Kingdom. Due to its size in comparison to other English counties, functions have been undertaken over time by its subdivisions. Throughout these changes, Yorkshire has continued to be recognised as a geographical territory, Yorkshire has sometimes been nicknamed Gods Own County or Gods Own Country. Yorkshire Day, held on 1 August, is a celebration of the culture of Yorkshire. Yorkshire is now divided between different official regions, most of the county falls within Yorkshire and the Humber. The extreme northern part of the county falls within North East England, Small areas in the west of the historic county now form part of North West England, following boundary changes in 1974. Yorkshire or the County of York was so named as it is the shire of the city of York local /ˈjɔːk/ or Yorks Shire, York comes from the Viking name for the city, Jórvík. Shire is from Old English, scir meaning care or official charge, the shire suffix is locally pronounced /-ʃə/ shuh, or occasionally /-ʃiə/, a homophone of sheer. Early inhabitants of Yorkshire were Celts, who formed two tribes, the Brigantes and the Parisi. The Brigantes controlled territory which later became all of the North Riding of Yorkshire, the tribe controlled most of Northern England and more territory than any other Celtic tribe in England. That they had the Yorkshire area as their heartland is evident in that Isurium Brigantum was the town of their civitas under Roman rule. Six of the nine Brigantian poleis described by Claudius Ptolemaeus in the Geographia fall within the historic county, the Parisi, who controlled the area that would become the East Riding of Yorkshire, might have been related to the Parisii of Lutetia Parisiorum, Gaul. Their capital was at Petuaria, close to the Humber estuary, initially, this situation suited both the Romans and the Brigantes, who were known as the most militant tribe in Britain. Queen Cartimandua left her husband Venutius for his bearer, Vellocatus. Cartimandua, due to her relationship with the Romans, was able to keep control of the kingdom. At the second attempt, Venutius seized the kingdom, but the Romans, under general Petillius Cerialis, the fortified city of Eboracum was named as capital of Britannia Inferior and joint-capital of all Roman Britain. During the two years before the death of Emperor Septimius Severus, the Roman Empire was run from Eboracum by him, another emperor, Constantius Chlorus, died in Yorkshire during a visit in 306 AD. This saw his son Constantine the Great proclaimed emperor in the city, in the early 5th century, the Roman rule ceased with the withdrawal of the last active Roman troops
Yorkshire
–
Statue of
Constantine I outside
York Minster.
Yorkshire
–
Flag of Yorkshire
Yorkshire
–
York Minster, western elevation
Yorkshire
–
Yorkist king
Richard III grew up at
Middleham.
10.
Yorkshire Dales National Park
–
The park was designated in 1954, and was extended in 2016. Over 20,000 residents live and work in the park, the park is 50 miles north-east of Manchester, Leeds and Bradford lie to the south, while Kendal is to the west, Darlington to the north-east and Harrogate to the south-east. The national park does not include all of the Yorkshire Dales, parts of the dales to the south and east of the national park are located in the Nidderdale Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty. In 1954, an area of the county of Yorkshire West Riding was designated as a new national park. A westward extension of the park into Lancashire and Cumbria encompasses much of the area between the boundary of the park and the M6 motorway. This increases the area by nearly 24% and brings the park close to the towns of Kirkby Lonsdale, Kirkby Stephen, the area has a wide range of activities for visitors. For example, many come to the Dales for walking or other exercise. Several long-distance routes cross the park, including the Pennine Way, the Dales Way, the Coast to Coast Walk, cycling is also popular and there are several cycleways. The Dales Countryside Museum is housed in the converted Hawes railway station in Wensleydale in the north of the area, the park also has five visitor centres
Yorkshire Dales National Park
–
National park entrance sign, near
Skipton
Yorkshire Dales National Park
–
Stone houses in
Hawes, a typical example of Dales architecture
Yorkshire Dales National Park
–
Limestone hills and
dry-stone walls in the west of the Yorkshire Dales. This part of the national park is popular with walkers due to the presence of the
Yorkshire three peaks.
11.
Vale of York
–
This article is about the geographical area. For the UK parliamentary constituency, see Vale of York and for the racehorse, the Vale of York is an area of flat land in the northeast of England. The vale is an agricultural area and serves as the main north-south transport corridor for Northern England. The Vale of York is often supposed to stretch from the River Tees in the north to the Humber estuary in the south. More properly it is just the part of this area which is truly the Vale of York, with the Vale of Mowbray to its north. It is bounded by the Howardian Hills and Yorkshire Wolds to the east, the low-lying ridge of the Escrick moraine marks its southern boundary. York lies in the middle of the area, as part of Great Britain, the Vale of York generally has cool summers and relatively mild winters. Weather conditions vary from day to day as well as season to season. Between depressions there are often small mobile anticyclones that bring periods of fair weather, in winter anticyclones bring cold dry weather. In summer the anticyclones tend to bring dry settled conditions which can lead to drought, for its latitude this area is mild in winter and cooler in summer due to the influence of the Gulf Stream in the North Atlantic. Air temperature varies on a daily and seasonal basis, the temperature is usually lower at night and January is the coldest time of the year. The vale is in the shadow of the Pennines so has a lower rainfall total than areas to the west. It is also subject to fog and frosts in winter than other areas because of the tendency of cold air to drain into the vale from surrounding higher ground. Beneath the drift deposits of the Vale of York lie Triassic sandstone and mudstone and these deposits include glacial till, sand and gravel and both terminal and recessional moraines left by receding ice sheets at the end of the last ice age. The Escrick moraine extends across the vale from west to east, to the north of these ridges are deposits of clay, sand and gravel left by a glacial lake. There are also areas of river alluvium consisting of clay, silt and sand deposited by the main rivers, the Vale of York is drained southwards by the River Ouse and its tributaries, the Ure, the Nidd and the Foss. To the east of the area the River Derwent drains southwards into the Ouse, there are also frequent stream courses and drainage channels which link with the main rivers crossing the vale. Many of these watercourses are maintained and managed by internal drainage boards to ensure sustainable water levels are kept across the vale
Vale of York
–
Sketch map of the location of the Vale of York.
Vale of York
–
Open farmland in the Vale of York
Vale of York
–
The Battle of Marston Moor
12.
Drainage divide
–
A drainage divide, water divide, divide, ridgeline, watershed, water parting, is the line that separates neighbouring drainage basins. In hilly country, the divide lies along topographical ridges, and may be in the form of a range of hills or mountains. In flat country—especially where the ground is marshy—the divide may be harder to discern, a valley floor divide is a low drainage divide that runs across a valley, sometimes created by deposition or stream capture. Settlements are often built on valley-floor divides in the Alps, examples are Eben im Pongau, Kirchberg in Tirol and Waidring. Extremely low divides with heights of less than two metres are found on the North German Plain within the Urstromtäler, for example, between Havel and Finow in the Eberswalde Urstromtal. In marsh deltas such as the Okavango, the largest drainage area on earth, or in large areas, such as the Finnish Lakeland. Another case is bifurcation, where the watershed is effectively in the river bed, in pre-industrial times, water divides were crossed at portages. Later, canals connected adjoining drainage basins, a key problem in such canals is ensuring a sufficient water supply, category, Drainage basins List of watershed topics European watershed Scottish watershed River source
Drainage divide
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European drainage divides (red lines) separating drainage basins (grey regions)
13.
Dentdale
–
Dentdale is a dale or valley in the north-west of the Yorkshire Dales National Park in Cumbria, England. The dale is the valley of the River Dee, but takes its name from the village of Dent, the dale runs east to west starting at Dent Head which is the location of a railway viaduct on the Settle-Carlisle Line. Dentdale is one of the few of the Yorkshire Dales that drain westwards towards the Irish Sea, Dentdale was first settled in the 10th century when Norse invaders first entered the dale. The dale was also known to the Romans although there is no evidence of settlement during that period, the dale was one of the last of the Yorkshire Dales to be Enclosed in 1859. The typical occupations in the dale were farming and worsted related, several mills used the fast flowing waters of the River Dee to supply power to the mills. At least one of these was converted to the Dent Marble industry by 1810, Dentdale was originally in the Ewecross Wapentake of the West Riding of Yorkshire, but was transferred to Cumbria in 1974. Dent village is the shopping and social centre of the dale. There are two major villages, Dent Head and Gawthrop. Additionally there are two hamlets at the top of the dale - Cowgill and Stone House and it has been noted that it is increasingly difficult for young people and family groups to stay in the dale as housing becomes more unaffordable. There are over 200 listed buildings and structures in Dentdale which include the railway viaducts, bridges, barns, farmhouse, mileposts, only one structure is Grade I listed, that of the Church of St Andrew in Dent. The famous Settle-Carlisle Line passes across the edge of the dale being carried over the becks that feed the River Dee on Dent Head Viaduct. The walking route of the Dales Way crosses through the dale in a rough east/west axis, the route and the seclusion of the dale make it popular with walkers and lovers of The Dales. National Cycle route 68 that runs from Derbyshire to Berwick-upon-Tweed passes through the dale, the C5101 road runs through the dale from the nearest main road at Sedbergh to Newby Head Moss, east of the dale head, where it meets the B6255 Hawes to Ingleton road. Western Dales Bus operate a year round Saturday and summer Sunday service between Dent station and Sedbergh with stops en route, the Upper Dentdale Cave System, which is 2 miles east of Dent, was recognized as a site of Special Scientific Interest in 1998. The cave system extends for 1 mile beneath the floor under the River Dee and is notable for providing a unique insight into how caves are formed in valley floors. Dent Marble was quarried and polished in Dentdale between 1760 and 1909, both the viaducts that carry the Settle-Carlisle line over the dale are constructed from Dent Marble. The opening of the railway afforded the opportunity to export the marble out of the dale for the first time, the stone is not actually marble, it is a highly polished form of Black Limestone
Dentdale
–
Dentdale in November 2009
14.
Garsdale
–
Garsdale is a dale or valley in the south east of Cumbria, England, on the western slopes of the Pennines, between Baugh Fell to the north, and Rise Hill to the south. It is within the Yorkshire Dales National Park, the dale forms the civil parish of Garsdale. Small settlements lie along the main Northallerton to Kendal road which runs through the dale for 7 miles, the largest settlement, known as “The Street”, lies 6 miles east of Sedbergh, and 10 miles west of Hawes. The other hamlet in Garsdale is Garsdale Head, also called Hawes Junction, the population of the parish recorded in the 2001 census was 202, with many of the 150 houses being derelict or used as second homes. Garsdale was historically a part of the West Riding of Yorkshire and it is now within the South Lakeland local government district, but is still a Yorkshire Dale for planning purposes. The Sedgwick Trail, named after the well-known geologist Adam Sedgwick runs along the Clough from Danny Bridge, there are also three Methodist chapels, Low Smithy and Garsdale Street, both in regular use, and Hawes Junction which has occasional special events. The only other building in Garsdale is the village hall which was formerly the primary school. Garsdale has 18 working farms, most of them amalgamating several of the original smallholdings, because of the high annual rainfall of up to 100 inches, crops other than hay and silage are almost impossible, so all farms are stock rearing. Pedigree Swaledale rams occasionally make high prices at Hawes Auction mart, famous people born in Garsdale include John Dawson, James Inman and John Haygarth. At Garsdale railway station stands a statue of Ruswarp, a collie, Ruswarp belonged to Graham Nuttall, the first Secretary of the Friends of the Settle–Carlisle Line, which was formed to campaign against the proposed closure of the line. Ruswarps paw print was put on his own objection as a fare-paying passenger, the line was finally saved in 1989. In January 1990 Nuttall and Ruswarp went missing in the Welsh mountains, on 7 April 1990 a lone walker found Nuttalls body, by a mountain stream. Nearby was Ruswarp, so weak that the 14-year-old dog had to be carried off the mountain and he had stayed with his masters body for 11 winter weeks. The Royal Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals awarded Ruswarp their Animal Medallion and collar for vigilance and their Animal Plaque for intelligence and he survived long enough to attend Nuttalls funeral. Listed buildings in Garsdale Thompson, Rev. W. Sedbergh, original copy available from Kendal public library. Sedbergh, Garsdale And Dent, Peeps At The Past History And Present Condition Of Some Picturesque Yorkshire Dales, the Garsdale website Cumbria County History Trust, Garsdale The Garsdale Red Squirrels website
Garsdale
–
Garsdale
Garsdale
–
Statue of Ruswarp at Garsdale Railway Station
15.
River Ouse, Yorkshire
–
The River Ouse is a river in North Yorkshire, England. The length of the Ouse alone is about 52 miles and it then flows through the city of York and the towns of Selby and Goole before joining with the River Trent at Trent Falls, near the village of Faxfleet, to form the Humber Estuary. The Ouses system of tributaries drains a large area of northern England, including much of the Yorkshire Dales. The Ouse valley is a wide, flat plain, heavy rainfall in the catchment area can bring severe flooding to nearby settlements. In recent years both York and Selby, and villages in between, have been badly hit. The traditional source of the Ouse is in the village of Great Ouseburn, OUSEGILL SPRING Ft. YORK 13miles BOROUGHBRIDGE 4miles. The site is 38 yards from the present course of Ouse Gill Beck, the start of the Ouse is now considered to be the point where Ouse Gill Beck joins the River Ure,1.6 miles south east of Great Ouseburn. The origin of the name is uncertain, the name was first recorded in about 780 as Usa. It has been speculated that the name is of Brythonic-Celtic origin, from an assumed word udso-, assumed to be derived from the Indo-European root wed-, meaning water. It has been suggested that the Ouse was once known as the Ure, however the form Ouse is little changed from the eighth century. The York district was settled by Norwegian and Danish people, so parts of the names could be old Norse. The old Norse wording oss, gradation form ouso, the Ouse is navigable throughout its length. Seagoing vessels use the river as far as Goole, where there is a port and access to the Aire. At Selby there is access to the Selby Canal, the river is tidal up to Naburn, the resultant tidal bore is known locally as the Aegir. At Naburn there is a weir with locks, so that boats of 150 feet length and 15 feet beam can reach York, above York there is another weir with locks at Linton-on-Ouse, which allows boats of 66 feet length to proceed to the River Ure Navigation. The navigation authority is Associated British Ports from Trent Falls to Goole railway swing bridge at Skelton, in the 18th and 19th centuries there was considerable commercial traffic on the river, mainly from Selby, which then had a custom house, downstream. After the 1826 opening of the Aire and Calder Navigation, most traffic became concentrated on the port of Goole and this continues, although the coal trade which formed the backbone of the river trade has ceased. Blacktoft Sands RSPB reserve Bridges over the Ouse Rivers of the United Kingdom York City Rowing Club
River Ouse, Yorkshire
–
The River Ouse in
York
River Ouse, Yorkshire
–
The A64 crossing the river Ouse,
Bishopthorpe,
York
River Ouse, Yorkshire
–
The River Ouse in the city of York, viewed from Skeldergate Bridge with Ouse Bridge in the background
16.
Humber
–
The Humber /ˈhʌmbər/ is a large tidal estuary on the east coast of Northern England. It is formed at Trent Falls, Faxfleet, by the confluence of the tidal rivers Ouse, from here to the North Sea, it forms part of the boundary between the East Riding of Yorkshire on the north bank and Lincolnshire on the south bank. Although the Humber is an estuary from the point at which it is formed, Ports on the Humber include the Port of Hull, Port of Grimsby, Port of Immingham, as well as lesser ports at New Holland and North Killingholme Haven. The estuary is navigable here for the largest of deep-sea vessels, inland connections for smaller craft are extensive but handle only one quarter of the goods traffic handled in the Thames. The Humber is now an estuary, when the world sea level was lower during the Ice Ages, the Humber had a long freshwater course across what was then the dry bed of the North Sea. In the Anglo-Saxon period, the Humber was a major boundary, the name Northumbria came from Anglo-Saxon Norðhymbre = the people north of the Humber. The Humber currently forms the boundary between the East Riding of Yorkshire, to the north and North and North East Lincolnshire, from 1974 to 1996, the areas now known as the East Riding of Yorkshire, North Lincolnshire and North East Lincolnshire constituted the county of Humberside. On 23 August 1921, the British airship R38 crashed into the estuary near Hull, the estuarys only modern crossing is the Humber Bridge, which was once the longest single-span suspension bridge in the world. Now it is the eighth longest, before the bridge was built in 1981, a series of paddle steamers operated from the Corporation Pier railway station at the Victoria Pier in Hull to the railway pier in New Holland. Steam ferries started in 1841, and in 1848 were purchased by the Manchester, Sheffield and they, and their successors, ran the ferry until the bridge opened in 1981. Although the railway to New Holland closed in 1977, passenger, the line of the bridge is similar to an ancient ferry route from Hessle to Barton upon Humber, which is noted in the Domesday Book and in a charter of 1281. The ferry was recorded as operating in 1856, into the railway era. The Humber was then one mile across, the Humber Forts were built in the mouth of the river for the First World War. Planned in 1914, their construction started in 1915 and they were not completed until 1919, a coastal battery at Easington, Fort Goodwin or Kilnsea Battery, faced the Bull Sands Fort. They were also garrisoned during the Second World War, and were abandoned for military use in 1956. Fort Paull is further downstream, a Napoleonic-era emplacement replaced in the early 20th century by Stallinborough Battery opposite Sunk Island, graham Boanas, a Hull man, is believed to be the first man to succeed in wading across the Humber since ancient Roman times. The feat, in August 2005, was attempted to cash and awareness for the medical research charity. He started his trek on the bank at Brough, four hours later
Humber
–
River Hull tidal barrier. Situated at the end of the River Hull where it meets the Humber
Humber
–
Humber Bridge suspension bridge viewed from the south-east.
Humber
–
The Humber Estuary and Spurn Head looking north-east from over North Lincolnshire
Humber
–
Railway era map of Hull showing Ferry route and layout of docks
17.
Limestone
–
Limestone is a sedimentary rock, composed mainly of skeletal fragments of marine organisms such as coral, forams and molluscs. Its major materials are the minerals calcite and aragonite, which are different crystal forms of calcium carbonate, about 10% of sedimentary rocks are limestones. The solubility of limestone in water and weak acid solutions leads to karst landscapes, most cave systems are through limestone bedrock. The first geologist to distinguish limestone from dolomite was Belsazar Hacquet in 1778, like most other sedimentary rocks, most limestone is composed of grains. Most grains in limestone are skeletal fragments of organisms such as coral or foraminifera. Other carbonate grains comprising limestones are ooids, peloids, intraclasts and these organisms secrete shells made of aragonite or calcite, and leave these shells behind when they die. Limestone often contains variable amounts of silica in the form of chert or siliceous skeletal fragment, some limestones do not consist of grains at all, and are formed completely by the chemical precipitation of calcite or aragonite, i. e. travertine. Secondary calcite may be deposited by supersaturated meteoric waters and this produces speleothems, such as stalagmites and stalactites. Another form taken by calcite is oolitic limestone, which can be recognized by its granular appearance, the primary source of the calcite in limestone is most commonly marine organisms. Some of these organisms can construct mounds of rock known as reefs, below about 3,000 meters, water pressure and temperature conditions cause the dissolution of calcite to increase nonlinearly, so limestone typically does not form in deeper waters. Limestones may also form in lacustrine and evaporite depositional environments, calcite can be dissolved or precipitated by groundwater, depending on several factors, including the water temperature, pH, and dissolved ion concentrations. Calcite exhibits a characteristic called retrograde solubility, in which it becomes less soluble in water as the temperature increases. Impurities will cause limestones to exhibit different colors, especially with weathered surfaces, Limestone may be crystalline, clastic, granular, or massive, depending on the method of formation. Crystals of calcite, quartz, dolomite or barite may line small cavities in the rock, when conditions are right for precipitation, calcite forms mineral coatings that cement the existing rock grains together, or it can fill fractures. Travertine is a banded, compact variety of limestone formed along streams, particularly there are waterfalls. Calcium carbonate is deposited where evaporation of the leaves a solution supersaturated with the chemical constituents of calcite. Tufa, a porous or cellular variety of travertine, is found near waterfalls, coquina is a poorly consolidated limestone composed of pieces of coral or shells. During regional metamorphism that occurs during the building process, limestone recrystallizes into marble
Limestone
–
Limestone outcrop in the
Torcal de Antequera nature reserve of
Málaga, Spain
Limestone
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Limestone quarry at
Cedar Creek, Virginia, USA
Limestone
–
Cutting the limestone blocks at a quarry in
Gozo,
Malta
Limestone
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Limestone as building material
18.
North Germanic languages
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The language group is sometimes referred to as the Nordic languages, a direct translation of the most common term used among Danish, Swedish and Norwegian scholars and laypeople. Approximately 20 million people in the Nordic countries have a Scandinavian language as their native language, languages belonging to the North Germanic language tree are spoken commonly on Greenland and, to a lesser extent, by immigrants in North America. Dialects with the assigned to the northern group formed from the Proto-Germanic language in the late Pre-Roman Iron Age in Northern Europe. At last around the year 200 AD, speakers of the North Germanic branch became distinguishable from the other Germanic language speakers, the early development of this language branch is attested through runic inscriptions. The original vowel remained when nasalised *ōn and when before /z/, Proto-Germanic *geƀō ‘gift’ > Northwest Germanic *geƀu >, North Germanic *gjavu > with u-umlaut *gjǫvu > ON gjǫf, and West Germanic *gebu > OE giefu, cf. Goth giba. Proto-Germanic *tungōn ‘tongue’ > late Northwest Germanic *tungā > *tunga > ON tunga, OHG zunga, OE tunge, vs. Goth tuggō. *geƀōz ‘of a gift’ > late Northwest Germanic *geƀāz >, North Germanic *gjavaz > ON gjafar, the rhotacism of /z/ to /r/, with presumably a rhotic fricative of some kind as an earlier stage. This change probably affected West Germanic much earlier and then spread from there to North Germanic and this is confirmed by an intermediate stage ʀ, clearly attested in late runic East Norse at a time when West Germanic had long merged the sound with /r/. The development of the demonstrative pronoun ancestral to English this, Germanic *sa, sō, þat ‘this, that’ + proximal *si ‘here’, Runic Norse, nom. sg. þeim-si, etc. with declension of the 1st part, fixed form with declension on the 2nd part, ON sjá, þessi m. Some innovations are not found in West and East Germanic such as, Sharpening of geminate /jj/ and /ww/ according to Holtzmanns law Occurred also in East Germanic, Proto-Germanic *twajjôN > Old Norse tveggja, Gothic twaddjē, but > Old High German zweiio Word-final devoicing of stop consonants. Proto-Germanic *nahtuN > *nāttu > *nǭttu > Old Norse nótt /ɑi̯/ > /ɑː/ before /r/ Proto-Germanic *sairaz > *sāraz > *sārz > Old Norse sárr, with original /z/ Proto-Germanic *gaizaz > *geizz > Old Norse geirr. General loss of word-final /n/, following the loss of short vowels. Proto-Germanic *bindanaN > *bindan > Old Norse binda, but > Old English bindan and this also affected stressed syllables, Proto-Germanic *in > Old Norse í Vowel breaking of /e/ to /jɑ/ except after w, j or l. The diphthong /eu/ was also affected, shifting to /jɒu/ at an early stage and this diphthong is preserved in Old Gutnish and survives in modern Gutnish. In other Norse dialects, the /j/-onset and length remained, the word *ek, which could occur both stressed and unstressed, appears varyingly as ek and jak throughout Old Norse. Loss of initial /j/, and also of /w/ before a round vowel, Proto-Germanic *wulfaz > North Germanic ulfz > Old Norse ulfr The development of u-umlaut, which rounded stressed vowels when /u/ or /w/ followed in the next syllable. This followed vowel breaking, with ja /jɑ/ being u-umlauted to jǫ /jɒ/, Norwegian settlers brought Old West Norse to Iceland and the Faroe Islands around 800
North Germanic languages
–
Danish
19.
Germanic languages
–
It is the third most spoken Indo-European subdivision, behind Italic and Indo-Iranian, and ahead of Balto-Slavic languages. Limburgish varieties have roughly 1.3 million speakers along the Dutch–Belgian–German border, the main North Germanic languages are Norwegian, Danish, Swedish, Icelandic, and Faroese, which have a combined total of about 20 million speakers. The East Germanic branch included Gothic, Burgundian, and Vandalic, the last to die off was Crimean Gothic, spoken in the late 18th century in some isolated areas of Crimea. The total number of Germanic languages throughout history is unknown, as some of them—especially East Germanic languages—disappeared during or after the Migration Period. Proto-Germanic, along all of its descendants, is characterized by a number of unique linguistic features. Early varieties of Germanic enter history with the Germanic tribes moving south from Scandinavia in the 2nd century BC, to settle in the area of todays northern Germany, furthermore, it is the de facto language of the United Kingdom, the United States and Australia. It is also a language in Nicaragua and Malaysia. German is a language of Austria, Belgium, Germany, Liechtenstein, Luxembourg and Switzerland and has regional status in Italy, Poland, Namibia. German also continues to be spoken as a minority language by immigrant communities in North America, South America, Central America, Mexico, a German dialect, Pennsylvania Dutch, is still present amongst Anabaptist populations in Pennsylvania in the United States. Dutch is a language of Aruba, Belgium, Curaçao. The Netherlands also colonised Indonesia, but Dutch was scrapped as a language after Indonesian independence. Dutch was until 1925 an official language in South Africa, but evolved in and was replaced by Afrikaans, Afrikaans is one of the 11 official languages in South Africa and is a lingua franca of Namibia. It is used in other Southern African nations as well, low German is a collection of sometimes very diverse dialects spoken in the northeast of the Netherlands and northern Germany. Scots is spoken in Lowland Scotland and parts of Ulster, frisian is spoken among half a million people who live on the southern fringes of the North Sea in the Netherlands, Germany, and Denmark. Luxembourgish is mainly spoken in the Grand Duchy of Luxembourg, though it extends into small parts of Belgium, France. Limburgish varieties are spoken in the Limburg and Rhineland regions, along the Dutch–Belgian–German border, Swedish is also one of the two official languages in Finland, along with Finnish, and the only official language in the Åland Islands. Danish is also spoken natively by the Danish minority in the German state of Schleswig-Holstein, Norwegian is the official language of Norway. Icelandic is the language of Iceland, and is spoken by a significant minority in the Faroe Islands
Germanic languages
–
Countries where a Germanic language is the
first language of the majority of the population
20.
Danelaw
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The Danelaw, as recorded in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, is a historical name given to the part of England in which the laws of the Danes held sway and dominated those of the Anglo-Saxons. Danelaw contrasts West Saxon law and Mercian law, the term is first recorded in the early eleventh century as Dena lage. Modern historians have extended the term to a geographical designation, the areas that constituted the Danelaw lie in northern and eastern England. The Danelaw originated from the Viking expansion of the 9th century AD, in 886, the Treaty of Alfred and Guthrum was formalised, defining the boundaries of their kingdoms, with provisions for peaceful relations between the English and the Vikings. The language spoken in England was also affected by this clash of cultures with the emergence of Anglo-Norse dialects. The Danelaw roughly comprised 14 shires, York, Nottingham, Derby, Lincoln, Essex, Cambridge, Suffolk, Norfolk, Northampton, Huntingdon, Bedford, Hertford, Middlesex, from around 800, there had been waves of Danish raids on the coastlines of the British Isles. In 865, instead of raiding, the Danes landed an army in East Anglia. The combined army was described in the annals as the Great Heathen Army, after making peace with the local East Anglian king in return for horses, the Great Heathen Army moved north. In 867, they captured Northumbria and its capital, York, the Danes then placed an Englishman, Ecgberht I of Northumbria, on the throne of Northumbria as a puppet ruler. King Æthelred of Wessex and his brother, Alfred, led their army against the Danes at Nottingham, King Burgred of Mercia then negotiated peace with Ivar, with the Danes keeping Nottingham in exchange for leaving the rest of Mercia alone. Under Ivar the Boneless, the Danes continued their invasion in 869 by defeating King Edmund of East Anglia at Hoxne, once again, the brothers Æthelred and Alfred attempted to stop Ivar by attacking the Danes at Reading. They were repelled with heavy losses, the Danes pursued, and on 7 January 871, Æthelred and Alfred defeated the Danes at the Battle of Ashdown. The Danes retreated to Basing, where Æthelred attacked and was, in turn, Ivar was able to follow up this victory with another in March at Meretum. On 23 April 871, King Æthelred died and Alfred succeeded him as King of Wessex and his army was weak and he was forced to pay tribute to Ivar in order to make peace with the Danes. During this peace, the Danes turned to the north and attacked Mercia, both the Danish leader Ivar and the Mercian leader Burgred died during this campaign. Ivar was succeeded by Guthrum, who finished the campaign against Mercia, in ten years, the Danes had gained control over East Anglia, Northumbria and Mercia, leaving just Wessex resisting. Guthrum and the Danes brokered peace with Wessex in 876, when they captured the fortresses of Wareham, Alfred laid siege to the Danes, who were forced to surrender after reinforcements were lost in a storm. Two years later, Guthrum again attacked Alfred, surprising him by attacking his forces wintering in Chippenham, King Alfred was saved when the Danish army coming from his rear was destroyed by inferior forces at the Battle of Cynuit
Danelaw
–
Map of England Showing the Anglo-Saxon Kingdoms and Danish Districts - from Cassell's History of England, Vol. I - anonymous author and artists
Danelaw
–
England, 878
21.
Wensleydale
–
Wensleydale is the dale or upper valley of the River Ure on the east side of the Pennines, one of the Yorkshire Dales in North Yorkshire, England. The dale takes its name from the village of Wensley, once the town for the dale. Wensley derives from Wodens ley, or meadow of the pagan god Woden, the valley is famous for its cheese, with the main commercial production at Hawes. Most of the dale is within the Yorkshire Dales National Park, part of lower Wensleydale, below East Witton, is within the Nidderdale Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty. Wensleydale was the home of one of Yorkshires most famous clans, the Metcalfe Society hold records dating back to Metcalfes living in the area during the 14th century. They were one of the most prominent families in Yorkshire for over five centuries, sir James Metcalfe, who was born and lived in Wensleydale, was a captain in the army which fought with King Henry V in the battle of Agincourt in 1415. Metcalfe is still one of the most common surnames in Yorkshire, Bolton Castle in the village of Castle Bolton is a notable local historic site. Mary, Queen of Scots, was imprisoned here, wensleydales principal settlements are Hawes and Leyburn, Aysgarth, Bainbridge, and Middleham are well-known villages. The shortest river in England, the River Bain, links Semerwater to the River Ure, at Bainbridge, Hardraw Force, the highest above-ground unbroken waterfall in England, is located at Hardraw, near Hawes. Aysgarth Falls are famous for their beauty, attracting visitors, they were also featured in the film Robin Hood. Other notable waterfalls are at West Burton, and Whitfield Gill Force, Wensleydale stretches some 25 miles from west to east. It lies between Wharfedale, and the quieter Swaledale, on the way it collects the waters of the River Swale, River Nidd, River Wharfe, River Aire, River Derwent and River Trent. Wensleydale is a popular destination in its own right, enhanced by its central location between two other well-known tourist dales, Wharfedale and the quieter Swaledale. Wensleydale is a destination for visitors who like walking on mountains, moorland, dale-sides. Hawes and Leyburn are popular because of their age, location, Hawes is the home of a rope-makers, where visitors can see the manufacturing process. The Wensleydale Railway operates in Wensleydale and it currently runs between Leeming Bar, the A1 and Redmire, near Castle Bolton. It is hoped this may help some of the current traffic congestion that the valley suffers from during the busiest months. Some visitors come to Wensleydale due to its connection with Richard III, Middleham itself is a pleasant village with pubs and horse-racing connections
Wensleydale
–
Wensleydale near
Hawes
22.
River Ure
–
The River Ure is a river in North Yorkshire, England, approximately 74 miles long from its source to the point where it changes name to the River Ouse. It is the river of Wensleydale, which is the only one of the major Dales now named after a village rather than its river. The old name for the valley was Yoredale after the river runs through it. The Ure is one of many rivers and waterways that drain the Dales into the River Ouse, tributaries of the Ure include the River Swale and the River Skell. The earliest recorded name of the river is Earp in about 1025, probably an error for Ear Ƿ, by 1140 it is recorded as Jor, hence Jervaulx Abbey, and a little later as Yore. In Tudor times the antiquarians John Leland and William Camden used the form of the name. The name probably means the strong or swift river and this is on the assumption that the Brittonic name of the river was Isurā, because the Roman name for Aldborough was Isurium, intervocalic s is known to have been lost in Brittonic at an early date. This explanation connects the name with an Indo-European root is- meaning strong and the names of the Isar in Germany. The source of the river is Ure Head on Abbotside Common where it flows west south-west to the valley floor, where it reaches the A684 it turns east along Wensleydale as far as Wensley. From here it flows south-east to Jervaulx Abbey and shortly after south to Mickley, here it returns east and then south to Ripon. A little way after Ripon it flows east again to Boroughbridge, to the east of Boroughbridge, the Ure is joined by the River Swale. About 6 miles downstream of confluence, at Cuddy Shaw Reach near Linton-on-Ouse. Low and High Water Levels are an average figure, upper Wensleydale is high, open and remote U shaped valley overlying Yoredale Beds. The gradient is gentle to the end of the valley. Drumlins lay either side of the river, which is shallow, the river is fed from many gills cutting through woodland and predominantly sheep farmsteads. The Settle to Carlisle railway runs along the side of the valley here. Mid Wensleydale is made of Great Scar limestone under Yoredale beds that make up the sides which are marked with stepped limestone scars. The valley floor is made from glacial drift tails and moraine, the river here is broad and gently flowing in meanders in a stony channel
River Ure
–
Aysgarth Falls in
Wensleydale
River Ure
–
The River Ure near its source
River Ure
–
River Ure west of Hawes
River Ure
–
The River Ure near Worton Bridge
23.
Valley
–
A valley is a low area between hills, often with a river running through it. In geology, a valley or dale is a depression that is longer than it is wide, the terms U-shaped and V-shaped are descriptive terms of geography to characterize the form of valleys. Most valleys belong to one of two main types or a mixture of them, with respect to the cross section of the slopes or hillsides. A valley in its broadest geographic sense is known as a dale. A valley through which a river runs may also be referred to as a vale, a small, secluded, and often wooded valley is known as a dell or in Scotland as a glen. A wide, flat valley through which a river runs is known in Scotland as a strath, a mountain cove is a small valley, closed at one or both ends, in the central or southern Appalachian Mountains which sometimes results from the erosion of a geologic window. A small valley surrounded by mountains or ridges is sometimes known as a hollow, a deep, narrow valley is known as a cwm. Similar geological structures, such as canyons, ravines, gorges, gullies, chines, a valley formed by erosion is called an erosional valley, a valley formed by geologic events such as drop faults or the rise of highlands is called a structural valley. A valley formed by flowing water, or river valley, is usually V-shaped, the exact shape will depend on the characteristics of the stream flowing through it. Rivers with steep gradients, as in mountain ranges, produce steep walls, shallower slopes may produce broader and gentler valleys. However, in the lowest stretch of a river, where it approaches its base level, it begins to deposit sediment, in prehistory, the rivers were used as a source of fresh water and food, as well as a place to wash and a sewer. The proximity of water moderated temperature extremes and provided a source for irrigation, most of the first civilizations developed from these river valley communities. In geography, a vale is a river valley, usually with a particularly wide flood plain or flat valley bottom. In Southern England, vales commonly occur between the escarpment slopes of pairs of chalk formations, where the dome has been eroded, exposing less resistant underlying rock. Rift valleys, such as the Albertine Rift, are formed by the expansion of the Earths crust due to tectonic activity beneath the Earths surface, there are various forms of valley associated with glaciation that may be referred to as glacial valleys. A valley carved by glaciers is normally U-shaped, the valley becomes visible upon the recession of the glacier that forms it. When the ice recedes or thaws, the remains, often littered with small boulders that were transported within the ice. Floor gradient does not affect the shape, it is the glaciers size that does
Valley
–
Calchaquí Valleys in
Argentina
Valley
–
U-shaped valley in
Glacier National Park,
Montana,
USA
Valley
–
Romsdalen in
Western Norway is an almost vertical valley.
Valley
–
Fljótsdalur in East
Iceland, a rather flat valley (in Scotland, this type of valley is called a "strath")
24.
Spa town
–
A spa town is a resort town based around a mineral spa. Patrons visited spas to take the waters for their health benefits. The word spa is derived from the name of Spa, such a town in Belgium, thomas Guidott set up a medical practice in the English town of Bath in 1668. He became interested in the properties of the hot mineral waters there and in 1676 wrote A discourse of Bathe. Also, Some Enquiries into the Nature of the water and this brought the health-giving properties of the waters to the attention of the aristocracy, who started to partake in them soon after. The term spa is used for towns or resorts offering hydrotherapy, Most are within 30 km of Daylesford, Victoria, the Daylesford and Hepburn Springs call themselves the Spa Centre of Australia. Chaudfontaine Ostend Spa See, List of spa towns in Bosnia and Herzegovina Banja Vrućica, the traditional ones are, Águas de Lindoia, Serra Negra, Águas de São Pedro, Caxambu, Poços de Caldas, Caldas Novas, Araxá, and São Lourenço. See, List of spa towns in Bulgaria Bulgaria is known for its more than 500 mineral springs, other famous spa towns include Sandanski, Hisarya, Bankya, Devin, Kyustendil, Varshets, Velingard. In Bulgarian, the word for a spa is баня, See, List of spa towns in Canada Harrison Hot Springs is one of the oldest among 18 in British Columbia, there are also two in Alberta and one in Ontario. See, List of spa towns in Croatia In Croatia, the word Toplice implies a spa town, the most famous spa towns in Croatia are Daruvar, Šibenik and Sisak. See, Spa towns in the Czech Republic In the Czech Language, the most famous spa towns in Czech Republic are Karlovy Vary, Teplice, Františkovy Lázně and Mariánské Lázně. See, List of spa towns in France In France, the words bains, thermes, there are more than 50 spa towns in France, including Vichy, Aix-les-Bains, Bagnoles-de-lOrne, Dax, and Enghien-les-Bains. See, List of spa towns in Germany In Germany, the word Bad implies a spa town, blasien, Titisee, Tegernsee, Travemünde and Zingst. Wiesbaden is the largest spa town in Germany, See, List of spa towns in Hungary In Hungary, the word fürdő or the more archaic füred, fürdőváros or fürdőhely implies a spa town. Hungary is rich in waters with health benefits, and many spa towns are popular tourist destinations. Budapest has several spas, including Turkish style spas dating back to the 16th century, eger also has a Turkish spa. Other famous spas include the ones at Hévíz, Harkány, Bük, Hajdúszoboszló, Gyula, Bogács, Bükkszék, Zalakaros, the Cave Bath at Miskolctapolca and the Zsóry-fürdő at Mezőkövesd. See, List of spa towns in Italy In Italy, spa towns and these places were known and used since the Roman age
Spa town
–
The statue of "A man breaking a walking crutch" in the spa town
Piešťany (
Slovakia) - a very eloquent symbol of spa towns and balneotherapy.
Spa town
–
Print of
Spa,
Belgium, 1895
Spa town
–
The Roman walls of Hisarya. Many spa towns in Bulgaria have existed since the
Roman Empire.
Spa town
–
A spa town
Mariánské Lázně
25.
Settle, North Yorkshire
–
Settle is a small market town and civil parish in the Craven district of North Yorkshire, England. Historically in the West Riding of Yorkshire, it is served by Settle railway station located near the town centre and it is 29 miles from Leeds Bradford Airport. The main road through Settle is the B6480, which links to the A65, connecting Settle to Skipton, the town has a population of 2,421 according to the 2001 Census increasing to 2,564 at the 2011 Census. Settle is thought to have 7th century Anglian origins, its name being the Angle word for settlement, Craven in the Domesday Book shows that until 1066 Bo was the lord of Settle but after the Harrying of the North the land was granted to Roger de Poitou. In 1249 a market charter was granted to Henry de Percy, a market square developed and the main route through the medieval town was aligned on an east-west direction, from Albert Hill, Victoria Street, High Street and Cheapside and on through Kirkgate. This road led to Giggleswick where the citizens attended the parish church, the first bridge over the River Ribble was mentioned in 1498. During the English Civil War, the Cliffords, the lords of the manor were Royalists, john Lambert of Calton in Malhamdale, was a general in Cromwells army and his troops camped at Settle in August 1651 while on the road to an encounter in Lancaster. Daniel Defoe wrote Settle is the capital of a little kingdom of its own surrounded by barren hills. Because of its remoteness Settle saw mostly local commerce, the old roads were pack horse trails and drovers roads along hilltops because the valley was soft and swampy before field drainage and the dredging of stream estuaries. In the 1700s textile industrialists supported by traders and landowners campaigned for a turnpike to connect with growing industrial towns, the minute book for the Keighley and Kendal Turnpike Trust shows that most investors were mill owners from the Giggleswick district. In 1827 the trust, having miscalculated the cost of maintenance, was in debt by £34,000. When in 1877 the trust was terminated, the received on average 54% of their deposit. The investors had benefited in that Settle was now well connected, the first passenger stagecoach arrived in 1763. The Mail Coach was running regularly in 1786, the Union coach for passengers ran each way on alternate days in the early 1800s, and daily by 1840. The little North Western Railway reached Giggleswick in 1847 and in 1849 the railway company constructed Station Road from Giggleswick to Settle, in the late 18th century cotton spinning became the towns main employment. Bridge End Mill was converted from corn milling to cotton spinning, john Procter operated mills at Runley and Kings Mill which were taken over by his son Thomas. He built the row of cottages, Procters Row in Lower Kirkgate. In 1835, Dog Kennel Mill and Brennands Weaving Shed, Settle had five mills employing 333 people, Settle is served by a town council made up of 11 councillors
Settle, North Yorkshire
–
Settle town centre
Settle, North Yorkshire
–
View from Castlebergh
26.
Skipton
–
Skipton is a market town and civil parish in the Craven district of North Yorkshire, England. Historically in the West Riding of Yorkshire, it is on the River Aire, at the 2011 Census, Skipton had a population of 14,623. Skipton is recorded in the Domesday Book of 1086 and it was important during the English Civil War and was the site of a prisoner of war camp during the First World War. The mill as it today is only half of what used to exist when two mills were in operation to produce corn for the whole of Skipton. The mill has been redesigned, from the mill grounds to the buildings themselves. Skipton Castle was built in 1090 as a wooden motte-and-bailey by Robert de Romille, the protection offered by Skipton Castle during the Middle Ages encouraged the urbanisation of the surrounding area, and during times of war and disorder the town attracted an influx of families. It is now one of the most complete and best preserved castles in England and is open to the public. Skipton became a market town, trading sheep and woollen goods, its name derives from the Old English sceap. A market stemming from its formative years still survives, since 1974, Skipton has been the seat of Craven District Council. The Skipton Building Society was founded in the town, Skipton is part of the parliamentary constituency of Skipton and Ripon, which was created in 1983. The constituency has returned a Conservative MP since its inception, the seat is currently held by Julian Smith MP. Before 1983 Skipton had its own eponymous constituency, Skipton forms part of Craven District, a Non-metropolitan district, and is home of the offices of Craven District Council. In 2007, proposals to make North Yorkshire County Council a unitary authority, Skipton has its own town council consisting of 16 Councillors, formed by 4 members from each of the four wards within the parish boundaries. Skipton Town Councillors elect a Town Mayor each year at its Annual General Meeting and this year, the Town Mayor is Councillor Gordon Bell. The Town Council Offices are based on the High Street, above Barclays Bank, the towns major local employer is Skipton Building Society, with its subsidiary companies. The town is home to several companies, including Blue Water Holidays. It is a centre for recruitment, with several hundred people employed in this sector, Recruitment firms include Medacs, JCJ, Templars, Holt and Medic International, and Justteachers. Tourism and retail sales are also significant, there is also a recruitment software company called LMS Recruitment Systems Ltd
Skipton
–
Skipton from Skipton Moor
Skipton
–
Craven Museum & Gallery
Skipton
–
Skipton Waterway Festival
Skipton
–
Skipton railway station
27.
Ilkley
–
Ilkley is a spa town and civil parish in West Yorkshire, in Northern England. Historically part of the West Riding of Yorkshire, Ilkley civil parish includes the adjacent village of Ben Rhydding and is a ward within the borough of the City of Bradford. Approximately 12 miles north of Bradford and 17 miles northwest of Leeds, Ilkleys spa town heritage and surrounding countryside make tourism an important local industry. The town centre is characterised by Victorian architecture, wide streets, Ilkley Moor, to the south of the town, is the subject of a folk song, often described as the unofficial anthem of Yorkshire, On Ilkla Moor Baht at. The songs words are written in Yorkshire dialect, its title translated as On Ilkley Moor without a hat, the earliest evidence of habitation in the Ilkley area is from flint arrowheads or microliths, dating to the Mesolithic period, from about 11,000 BC onwards. A druidical stone circle, the Twelve Apostles Stone Circle, was constructed 2,000 years ago, serious interest in the rock art of Ilkley began after the publication in 1879 of the Prehistoric Rock Sculptures of Ilkley by Romilly Allen in the Journal of the British Archaeological Association. The remains of a Roman fort occupy a site near the town centre, some authorities believe it is Olicana, dating to 79 AD, but the identification is not settled. A number of Roman altars have been discovered from the reigns of Antoninus Pius, three Anglo-Saxon crosses from the 8th century that stood in the churchyard of All Saints Church have been moved inside to prevent erosion. The church site, as a centre for Christian worship, extends to 627 AD, the Domesday Book, of 1086, records Ilkley as being in the possession of William de Percy 1st Baron Percy. The land was acquired by the Middelton family of Myddelton Lodge, the family lost possession through a series of land sales and mortgage repossessions over a period of about a hundred years from the early 19th century. The agents of William Middelton were responsible for the design of the new town of Ilkley to replace the village which had stood there before, in the 17th and 18th centuries the town gained a reputation for the efficacy of its water. In the 19th century it established as a fashionable spa town, with the construction of Ben Rhydding Hydro, a hydropathic establishment at Wheatley. Charles Darwin underwent hydropathic treatment at Wells House when his book On the Origin of Species was published on 24 November 1859, tourists flocked to take the waters and bathe in the cold-water spring. Wheatley was renamed Ben Rhydding after the Hydro, which has been demolished, the Midland Railway built a connection to Skipton via Bolton Abbey in May 1888. Other Victorian visitors to the town include Madame Tussaud, the only remaining hydro building is the white cottage known as White Wells House. The cottage can be seen and visited on the edge of the moor overlooking the town, the town has a parish council and although it is a town and has a town hall, the parish council has not exercised its right to be called a town council. The parish consists of four wards and elects 14 councillors, Ilkley North, Ilkley South, Ilkley West, the parish council precept is collected with the annual Council Tax to fund its running and to aid the development of local projects. The parish is a ward in the borough of the City of Bradford and is represented by three Conservative councillors
Ilkley
–
Ilkley Town Hall
Ilkley
–
Bronze Age markings at Hangingstone Quarry, above Ilkley
Ilkley
–
The Manor House, Ilkley
Ilkley
–
The Old Bridge, Ilkley
28.
Harrogate
–
Harrogate is a spa town in North Yorkshire, England. Historically in the West Riding of Yorkshire, the town is a tourist destination and its attractions include its spa waters. Nearby is the Yorkshire Dales national park and the Nidderdale AONB, Harrogate grew out of two smaller settlements, High Harrogate and Low Harrogate, in the 17th century. Since 2013, polls have consistently voted the town as the happiest place to live in Britain, Harrogate spa water contains iron, sulphur and common salt. The town became known as The English Spa in the Georgian era, in the 17th and 18th centuries its chalybeate waters were a popular health treatment, and the influx of wealthy but sickly visitors contributed significantly to the wealth of the town. Harrogate railway station and Harrogate bus station in the town centre provide transport connections, Leeds Bradford International Airport is 10 miles south-west of Harrogate. The main roads through the town are the A61, connecting Harrogate to Leeds and Ripon, Harrogate is also connected to Wetherby and the A1, by the A661. The town motto is Arx celebris fontibus, which means a citadel famous for its springs, the name Harrogate is first attested in the 1330s as Harwegate, Harougat and Harrowgate. The origin of the name is uncertain and it may derive from Old Norse hǫrgr a heap of stones, cairn + gata street, in which case the name presumably meant road to the cairn. Another possibility is that the means the way to Harlow. The form Harlowgate is known from 1518, and apparently in the rolls of Edward II. In medieval times Harrogate was a place on the borders of the township of Bilton with Harrogate in the ancient Parish of Knaresborough, and the parish of Pannal, also known as Beckwith with Rossett. The part within the township of Bilton developed into the community of High Harrogate, both communities were within the Royal Forest of Knaresborough. In 1372 King Edward III granted the Royal Forest to his son John, Duke of Lancaster, Harrogates development is owed to the discovery of its chalybeate and sulphur rich spring water from the 16th century. The medicinal properties of the waters were publicised by Edmund Deane and his book, Spadacrene Anglica, or the English Spa Fountain was published in 1626. In the 17th and 18th centuries further chalybeate springs were discovered in High Harrogate, the two communities attracted many visitors. A number of inns were opened for visitors in High Harrogate in the 17th century In Low Harrogate the Crown was open by the mid 18th century, in accordance with an Enclosure Act of 1770, promoted by the Duchy of Lancaster, the Royal Forest of Knaresborough was enclosed. The Enclosure Award of 1778 clarified ownership of land in the Harrogate area, under the Award 200 acres of land, which included the springs known at that time, were reserved as a public common, the Stray, which has remained public open space
Harrogate
–
Harrogate
cenotaph
Harrogate
–
Royal Pump Room
Harrogate
–
Harrogate Town Hall
Harrogate
–
Curtain and orchestra pit of the Harrogate Theatre
29.
Wharfedale
–
Wharfedale is one of the Yorkshire Dales in England. It is the valley of the River Wharfe. Beyond Wetherby, the valley opens out and becomes part of the Vale of York, the section from the rivers source to around Addingham is known as Upper Wharfedale and lies in North Yorkshire and in the Yorkshire Dales National Park. The first 15 miles or so is known as Langstrothdale, including the settlements of Beckermonds, Yockenthwaite and Hubberholme, famous for its church, the resting place of the writer J. B. As it turns southwards, the Wharfe then runs through a green and lush valley, characterised by limestone outcrops, such as Kilnsey Crag, below Addingham, the dale broadens and turns to the east. This section is shared between North Yorkshire and West Yorkshire and includes the towns of Ilkley, Otley and Wetherby, the northern side of Lower Wharfedale, opposite Ilkley, Burley-in-Wharfedale and Otley, is in the Nidderdale Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty. The Yorkshire Dales Rivers Trust has a remit to conserve the ecological condition of Wharfedale, Wensleydale, Swaledale and Nidderdale catchments from their headwaters to the Humber estuary
Wharfedale
–
The broad sunlit uplands of Lower Wharfedale above
Otley
30.
Calderdale
–
The Metropolitan Borough of Calderdale is a metropolitan borough of West Yorkshire, England. It takes its name from the River Calder, whose upper part flows through the borough, several small valleys contain tributaries of the River Calder. The population at the 2011 Census was 203,826, Calderdale covers part of the South Pennines and is the southernmost of the Yorkshire Dales, though it is not part of the Yorkshire Dales National Park. The borough was formed by the merger of six local government districts, spanning, from east to west. Mytholmroyd is now part of Hebden Bridge, forming Hebden Royd, Calderdale is served by Calderdale Council, Calderdales admin headquarters is in Halifax, with some council organisations based in Hebden Bridge. The Roman settlement of Cambodunum was probably located within Calderdale, a Roman fort has been excavated in Slack but its identity is not yet certain. Both schools achieve excellent GCSE and A-level results, achieving a proportion of A* to C grades at GCSE level. In 2005 the Crossley Heath School was the highest ranking school in the north of England. Calderdale College is a further education college on Francis Street. The borough is divided into 17 wards and each is represented on the council by three councillors. Exceptions to this include by-elections and ward boundary changes, mayors of Calderdale Calderdale is part of the Calderdale Primary Care Trust, South West Yorkshire NHS Foundation Trust and Calderdale & Huddersfield NHS Foundation Trust. The borough has two hospitals and one hospice, the main hospital is the Calderdale Royal Hospital, located on the main route to Huddersfield in Salterhebble. It has specialist departments, Calderdales A&E department and the Calderdale Birth Centre, the hospital was built and opened in 2001 on the site of the original Halifax General Hospital. After the new hospital opened, the Royal Halifax Infirmary closed and all services were transferred, NHS Ambulance services are provided by the Yorkshire Ambulance Service. Overgate Hospice provides specialist palliative care for adults in Calderdale, Elland Hospital, Calderdales only private hospital, is located by the Calderdale Way. Formerly BUPA Elland Independent Hospital, it is now owned and operated by Classic Hospitals, Calderdale is served by West Yorkshire Police, their Calderdale Division headquarters is at Halifax police station. Other police stations are located in Todmorden and at Brighouse, which has recently reopened, West Yorkshire Fire & Rescue covers Calderdale and it has six fire stations in the borough. These are located at Brighouse, Elland, King Cross, Mytholmroyd, Illingworth, Calderdale Libraries provides services through 22 local libraries, including a central library in Northgate, Halifax, and a digital library service
Calderdale
–
Signpost in Calderdale
Calderdale
–
Coat of arms of Calderdale Borough Council
31.
Arkengarthdale
–
Arkengarthdale is a dale, or valley, on the east side of the Pennines in North Yorkshire, England. Running roughly north-west to south-east, it is the valley of the Arkle Beck and it is a subsidiary dale to Swaledale, which it joins at Reeth. On its way up the dale from Reeth the unclassified road crosses many small streams and their catchments, such as Great Punchard Gill, Roe Beck, Annaside Beck. It passes through small settlements, Raw, Arkle Town, Langthwaite, Eskeleth. At Eskeleth Bridge another unclassified road forks north-east, this also joins a minor road running along the side of the dale to Whaw. Beyond Whaw is the most sparsely populated part of Arkengarthdale. This area is one of the most northerly parts of the Yorkshire Dales National Park, eventually the dale ends and the road reaches the Tan Hill Inn, the highest in England, just outside the Park, near the Pennine watershed. Beyond Tan Hill, the road again, heading westward to Brough, south to Keld. The moors on both sides of Arkengarthdale are used for the annual Scott Trial, a motorcycle endurance event. The Dale cuts through the half of a major lead mining field. Most of the structures have now disappeared leaving only the spoil heaps. The current economy of the Dale depends on farming, grouse shooting. In the 19th century a lead ingot with the name Hadrian stamped on it was found, the large proportion of Viking names, Fagger Gill, Kitley Hill, Langthwaite and Whaw, indicates Viking settlement during the 10th century, probably arriving from the west. Arkil is a Viking name which leads to speculation that he was a local leader, following the Norman conquest in the 11th century a large part of North Yorkshire was given to Count Alan, a member of Williams family. He kept Arkengarthdale and neighbouring New Forest as a hunting forest which was policed by forest rangers, in the 14th century there were eight gamekeepers employed preventing game being hunted in the dale. Towards the end of the 13th century there were 30 cottages in the Parish, by the end of the 16th century the Earls of Richmond had died out and Arkengarthdale and New Forest reverted to the Crown. Attempts by Crown agents to change the leases of the 55 tenants of small-holdings in the led to protracted disputes. In 1628 the Crown, in an attempt to clear its debts, in 1656 the valley was bought by Charles Bathurst, who was Oliver Cromwells doctor
Arkengarthdale
–
Looking up lower Arkengarthdale towards Calver Hill
Arkengarthdale
–
Site of Octagonal Mill with the Hungry Hushes in the background.
Arkengarthdale
–
Traditional stone barns and
dry stone walls on the outskirts of Reeth in lower Arkengarthdale
Arkengarthdale
–
Traditional stone barn with outshut and livestock enclosure between Arkle Gill and Punchard Beck, about 2 miles (3.2 km) north-west of Langthwaite
32.
Bishopdale, North Yorkshire
–
Bishopdale is a dale in the Yorkshire Dales National Park in North Yorkshire, England. The dale is a side dale on the side of Wensleydale. Bishopdale is also the name of a parish, which includes only the sparsely populated upper reaches of the dale, from the head of the dale as far downstream as Howesyke. There are three villages in the dale, all in its part, West Burton, Thoralby. The Bishopdale Beck flows through the dale to join the River Ure about 1.1 miles east of Aysgarth. The B6160 road follows the path of the river from its junction with the A684 to the watershed at Kidstones Pass where it continues to Cray, the highest point in the dale is to be found at 640 metres about two thirds of the way up Buckden Pike. The Yorkshire Dales Rivers Trust YDRT has a remit to conserve the ecological condition of Bishopdale Beck from its headwaters to the Humber estuary. The dale is divided between four civil parishes, Bishopdale, Newbiggin, Thoralby and the part of Burton-cum-Walden. The populations of the four parishes were estimated in 2012 at The civil parish of Bishopdale was a township of the ancient parish of Aysgarth, population details for Bishopdale can be found under Newbiggin. It now shares a parish council, the Aysgarth & District Parish Council, with Aysgarth, Newbiggin, Thoralby. Media related to Bishopdale, North Yorkshire at Wikimedia Commons Bishopdale
Bishopdale, North Yorkshire
–
Upper Bishopdale, looking south-west towards Kidstones Pass
33.
Coverdale (dale)
–
Coverdale is a dale in the far east of the Yorkshire Dales, North Yorkshire, England. It takes its name from the River Cover, a tributary of the River Ure. The dale runs south-west from the end of Wensleydale to the dale head at a pass, known as Park Rash Pass. It is accessible by a track road, which runs the length of the dale. Speight suggests that the name derives from the Anglo-Saxon Cofa-Dal which means Cave-Dale or it may derive from Kofur which means Arrow, an abbey was founded at Coverham in the 14th century by Ralph, son of Robert Lord of Middleham. The order that it belonged to was Premonstratensian and was dissolved in 1536. Whilst some of the ruins are extant, it is not open to the general public. In the 18th century, the road through Coverdale from Kettlewell to Middleham was used as the route of coaches between London and Richmond, the route came north through Halifax, Keighley, Skipton and Cracoe as part of its 251 mi journey. The valley gives its name to a variant of Yorkshire Dales cheese, Coverdale cheese is of the same general texture and flavour as Wensleydale, but thought by some to be slightly sourer and therefore possessing greater edge. A Coverbridge team of dalesmen played the visiting Awali Camels team on tour from the Kingdom of Bahrain, braithwaite Hall, a 17th century farmhouse that was built in 1667. It has been let out to tenant farmers who also mined coal, forbidden Corner, a series of tunnels, caves, grottoes and walled gardens that join together to form a 3 dimensional maze. Agglethorpe Braidley Caldbergh Carlton Coverham East Scrafton Horsehouse Melmerby Middleham West Scrafton Speight, romantic Richmondshire, being a complete account of the history, antiquities and scenery of the picturesque valleys of the Swale and Yore. Media related to Coverdale at Wikimedia Commons
Coverdale (dale)
–
View of Coverdale looking towards
Melmerby
34.
Kingsdale
–
Kingsdale is a valley on the western edge of the Yorkshire Dales National Park in northern England. The larger part of the lies within the county of North Yorkshire. It is defined by the hills of Whernside to its east, Kingsdale is drained by the south-westward flowing Kingsdale Beck which assumes the name River Twiss before joining the River Doe at Ingleton to become the River Greta. The single minor road which serves the valley is followed by the Yorkshire Dales Cycle Way. There are several nationally important caves within the valley and the resurgence of Keld Head
Kingsdale
–
Kingsdale Head in 2005
35.
Littondale
–
Littondale is a dale in the Craven district of the non-metropolitan county of North Yorkshire, England. It comprises the settlements of Hawkswick, Arncliffe, Litton, Foxup and Halton Gill. The main waterway in the dale is the River Skirfare which is fed by many small gills, Littondale is a side dale to the west of Wharfedale and follows the River Skirfare. The nature of the dale and its characteristic smooth form was the result of ice ages. As the glacier for that age receded it left retreat moraine, like neighbouring Wharfedale, Littondale comprises mainly Great Scar Limestone and Yoredale rock. The dale has a number of holes and sink-holes that lead to underground cave systems such as at Boreham Cave. At the head of the dale is Pen-y-ghent, one of the Yorkshire Three Peaks, Littondale is rich in Bronze Age and Iron Age settlements, and has been a sheltered fertile valley for 5,000 years or more. Anglian cultivation terraces can be seen in the valley, after the Conquest, the Normans turned it into a hunting chase before the land was granted to the monks of Fountains Abbey in the 13th century, and became extensively used for sheep farming. Hawkswick is the first settlement reached travelling from the B6160, the name is derived from the Middle English Hauk meaning someone who trained Hawks and wick, meaning dairy farm. Arncliffe is the second, and largest, settlement reached travelling from the B6160, lies at the confluence of Cowside Beck, the name derives from the Old English, earna-clif, meaning eagles cliff. It is now an area and is centred on its village green and has one public house. The church was built in the 16th and 18th centuries to replace the stone 11th century building, Litton is the third settlement reached travelling from the B6160. The name has the village on a roaring stream. Halton Gill is the settlement reached travelling from the B6160. The name is derived from the Anglo-Saxon haugh meaning Valley and tun meaning farm, Gill is a derivation of the Olde Norse gil, meaning ravine, therefore the whole name means valley farm by the ravine. Foxup is the last settlement reached travelling from the B6160, the name means upstream with the foxes. Littondale lies entirely within the Craven District Council Ward of Upper Wharfedale, media related to Littondale at Wikimedia Commons
Littondale
–
Littondale. Seen from above Hawkswick on the path from Kettlewell.
Littondale
–
View down Littondale
Littondale
–
View up Littondale. Looking north-westwards from footpath corner at MR: SD916739.
Littondale
–
Stone pillar, Littondale near Hawkswick Bridge.
36.
Waldendale
–
Walden is a dale and hamlet in the Yorkshire Dales, North Yorkshire, England. The dale is a dale of Wensleydale, sometimes known as Waldendale or Walden Dale to distinguish it from the hamlet. The hamlet lies about 2 miles south of West Burton at the mouth of the dale, the smaller hamlet of Walden Head lies at the head of the dale,2 miles south of Walden. The name Walden, first recorded in 1270, comes from the Old English wala denu, media related to Walden, North Yorkshire at Wikimedia Commons Walden in the Upper Dales website
Waldendale
–
Looking south up Walden Dale
37.
Washburn Valley
–
The River Washburn is a river in Yorkshire, England. It originates high in the Yorkshire Dales and ends where it meets the River Wharfe and it lies within the Nidderdale Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty. The Washburn has been dammed to a series of four reservoirs, the lower three were built at the end of the 19th century, while the fourth, Thruscross, was delayed until the 1960s. Fewston and Swinsty Reservoirs have an area of around 1.6 km². Capelshaw Beck is the main tributary flowing into Thruscross reservoir, where the valley has not been flooded to make reservoirs, the sides are V shaped. The valley floor consists of solid Millstone Grit overlain with till drift, the drainage can be described as slowly permeable and seasonally waterlogged. The bedrock is covered with fine loam over clay soils and some peat soils at higher elevations on the fringe of the moorland, the river valley has grassland that is intensively managed for livestock. There are also a range of sizes, bounded by stonewalls often reinforced with post and wire fencing plus some post. There are very large forestry conifer plantations around the reservoirs as well as at Beecroft Moor Plantation with conifer shelterbelts at Carlhow Ridge Plantation, deciduous tree clumps can be found around settlements. Ancient Semi-Natural woodland can still be seen at Blubberhouses, Folly Hall Wood, Hanging Wood, there is evidence of past quarrying of local stone for buildings and walls. The river valley is crossed by the Harrogate Dales Way Link, the Washburn by Tom Bradley Washburn Valley Yesterday Vol II by David Alred. ISBN 1-85825-160-5 Rivers of the United Kingdom
Washburn Valley
–
The River Washburn approaching
Lindley Wood Reservoir
38.
Deepdale
–
The land on which the stadium stands was originally Deepdale Farm. It was leased on 21 January 1875 by the towns North End sports club and originally used for cricket and it hosted its first association football match on 5 October 1878. As football grew in popularity, it necessary to have raised areas. In the 1890s Preston built the West Paddock, which ran along the touch line, by the turn of the century, crowds were regularly over 10,000 and in 1921 they had to expand again. The Spion Kop was built and the West Paddock was extended to meet the Kop end, the pitch was removed to allow the building of the Town End, which was completed in 1928 but was destroyed by fire only five years later and had to be rebuilt. The Pavilion Stand, a small stand of two tiers holding the changing rooms and offices, was built and opened in 1934. The record league attendance for Preston North End at Deepdale is 42,684 v Arsenal in the First Division,23 April 1938, the womens team Dick, Kerrs Ladies also used to played at Deepdale, often beating mens professional teams in front of large crowds. During the 1960s and 1980s, big changes took place as roofs were placed on the stands, seating was installed, the original plans for the re-developed stadium were inspired by the Luigi Ferraris Stadium in Genoa, Italy. The regeneration of Deepdale began in 1995 when the old West Stand was demolished to make way for the new £4. 4m Sir Tom Finney Stand which includes press areas and restaurants. The next stand to be developed was the Bill Shankly Kop in 1998, followed by the Alan Kelly Town End in 2001, in 2008, a 25-metre screen was also erected on the roof of the Bill Shankly Kop. The statue, unveiled in July 2004, was inspired by a photo taken at the Chelsea versus PNE game played at Stamford Bridge, there had been a big downpour just before the kick off. The match would not have been played today because there were huge pools of water on the playing surface, I was going past a defender and the ball ran in to a pool of water. It was a photograph and it won the Sports Photograph of the Year award. The sculpture is a true likeness, Deepdale was used during the 2005 UEFA Womens Championship for three group games and a semi-final. Deepdale was the venue when the England Under-21s played Iceland in March 2011, Deepdale was used again at the end of the 2011–12 season to host two England Under-19s Elite Qualifying Round matches against Slovenia and Switzerland. Webcam showing construction of the fourth Stand
Deepdale
–
Deepdale Stadium
Deepdale
–
The National Football Museum logo. Includes a tan-coloured "T-Ball" football.
Deepdale
–
The Splash, statue of Sir
Tom Finney
39.
River Lune
–
The River Lune is a river of 53 miles length in Cumbria and Lancashire, England. The river begins as a stream at Newbiggin, in the parish of Ravenstonedale, Cumbria, at St. Helens Well and some neighbouring springs. On the first two miles of its course, it is joined by four streams, two of them as short as itself, but two ones much longer. These are the Bessy Beck, the Dry Beck of 4.9 km length at 0.32 miles from St. Helens Well, the Sandwath Beck at 0.37 miles, and the Weasdale Beck at 1.6 miles from the well. Weasdale Beck is the uppermost headwater of River Lune recorded in Environment Agencys Catchment Data Explorer, the valley of the Lune has three parts. The northern part between its source and Tebay is called Lunesdale, below this is the spectacular Lune Gorge through which both the M6 motorway and the West Coast Main Railway Line run. Below the gorge, the valley broadens out into Lonsdale, bridges over the Lune include the Devils Bridge near Kirkby Lonsdale and the Lune Millennium Bridge in Lancaster. At Caton, about 5 miles upstream from Lancaster, there is a cluster of three bridges at the Crook o Lune, near the end of the non-tidal reach of the river stands the Lune Aqueduct, which carries the Lancaster Canal. The Lune is now tidal only below Skerton Weir in Lancaster, four bridges in close proximity cross the estuary in Lancaster, Skerton Bridge, Greyhound Bridge, Lune Millennium Bridge and Carlisle Bridge which is the furthest downstream of the bridges. A Lancaster western bypass has been under discussion for many years, if it ever proceeds, a new bridge would be built downstream from Carlisle bridge. This part of the Lune is also the site of the old Port of Lancaster, probably a port from Roman times, the Lancaster Port Commission was established in 1750 to improve navigation on the estuary. Between 1750 and 1767, St Georges Quay and New Quay were built in Lancaster, in 1847 the Commissioners built a pair of lighthouses near Cockersand Abbey to help guide ships into the port. The lower lighthouse, known as the Plover Scar Lighthouse, still stands on Plover Scar, the old high light, a square wooden tower, was demolished in 1954, but the former keepers cottage, built alongside the high light, can still be seen. Lancaster is named after the Lune, the name of the ancient hundred of Lonsdale is also derived from the river. The river is a County Biological Heritage Site, there are these theories about the name Lune, From a Romano-British word meaning clean, pure. Via Anglo-Saxon Ēa Lōn as an adaptation of a Romano-British name referring to a Romano-British god Ialonus who was worshipped in the area. Lune is the crescent shape of the oxbow in the river, Lune is generic for a river with prominent oxbow
River Lune
–
The River Lune, Lancaster
River Lune
–
A November Morn in the Lune Valley by Reginald Aspinall
River Lune
–
Devil's Bridge over the River Lune in Kirkby Lonsdale
River Lune
–
Near the mouth of the Lune, at
Sunderland Point
40.
Dry-stone wall
–
Dry stone is a building method by which structures are constructed from stones without any mortar to bind them together. Dry stone structures are stable because of their construction method. Dry stone technology is best known in the context of wall construction, but dry stone artwork, buildings, bridges, Dry stone walls have been traditionally used in building construction as field boundaries and garden or churchyard walls, and on steep slopes as retaining walls for terracing. Some dry-stone wall constructions in north-west Europe have been dated back to the Neolithic Age, some Cornish hedges are believed by the Guild of Cornish Hedgers to date from 5000 BC, although there appears to be little dating evidence. In County Mayo, Ireland, a field system made from dry-stone walls. The cyclopean walls of the acropolis of Mycenae have been dated to 1350 BC, in Belize, the Mayan ruins at Lubaantun illustrate use of dry stone construction in architecture of the 8th and 9th centuries AD. When used as boundaries, dry stone structures often are known as dykes. Dry stone walls are characteristic of areas of Britain and Ireland where rock outcrops naturally or large stones exist in quantity in the soil. They are especially abundant in the West of Ireland, particularly Connemara and they may also be found throughout the Mediterranean, including retaining walls used for terracing. Such constructions are common where large stones are plentiful or conditions are too harsh for hedges capable of retaining livestock to be grown as field boundaries. Many thousands of miles of such walls exist, most of them centuries old, the technique of construction was brought to America primarily by English and Scots-Irish immigrants. The technique was taken to Australia and New Zealand. Similar walls also are found in the Swiss-Italian border region, where they are used to enclose the open space under large natural boulders or outcrops. The higher-lying rock-rich fields and pastures in Bohemias South-Western border range of Šumava are often lined by dry stone walls built of field-stones removed from the arable or cultural land and they serve both as cattle/sheep fences and the lots borders. Sometimes also the dry stone terracing is apparent, often combined with parts of masonry that are held together by a clay-cum-needles composite mortar. Great Zimbabwe is a city in the south-eastern hills of Zimbabwe, near Lake Mutirikwe. It was the capital of the Kingdom of Zimbabwe during the countrys Late Iron Age, construction on the monument began in the 11th century and continued until the 15th century. The exact identity of the Great Zimbabwe builders is at present unknown, the stone city spans an area of 722 hectares which, at its peak, could have housed up to 18,000 people
Dry-stone wall
–
17th century dry stone wall at
Muchalls Castle,
Scotland
Dry-stone wall
–
Inca wall of dry stone construction in
Cusco,
Peru
Dry-stone wall
–
Mosaic embedded in a dry stone wall in Italian
Switzerland
Dry-stone wall
–
Using a batter-frame and guidelines to rebuild a dry stone wall in
South Wales UK
41.
Glorious Twelfth
–
The Glorious Twelfth is a term used usually to refer to 12 August, the start of the shooting season for red grouse, and to a lesser extent the ptarmigan in Great Britain and Northern Ireland. This is one of the busiest days in the shooting season, the date itself is traditional, the current legislation enshrining it in England and Wales is the Game Act 1831. Not all game have the start to their open seasons - most begin on 1 September, with 1 October for woodcock. Since English law says that the start of the season cannot fall on a Sunday, it is postponed to 13 August. Because grouse are not and never have been reared to any extent for shooting, in some seasons where certain moors are hit by low numbers of grouse, shooting may not occur at all or be over by September. Duchal Moor Railway, a grouse railway Hunting in the United Kingdom British Association for Shooting and Conservation Game
Glorious Twelfth
–
Red grouse
42.
Geology of Yorkshire
–
The geology of Yorkshire in northern England shows a very close relationship between the major topographical areas and the geological period in which their rocks were formed. The rocks of the Pennine chain of hills in the west are of Carboniferous origin whilst those of the vale are Permo-Triassic. The North York Moors in the north-east of the county are Jurassic in age while the Yorkshire Wolds to the south east are Cretaceous chalk uplands, the plain of Holderness and the Humberhead levels both owe their present form to the Quaternary ice ages. The strata become gradually younger from west to east, much of Yorkshire presents heavily glaciated scenery as few places escaped the direct or indirect impact of the great ice sheets as they first advanced and then retreated during the last ice age. The oldest rocks in Yorkshire are represented by a number of small inliers of Palaeozoic areas along the margin of the Askrigg Block to the north of the Craven faults. This Ingletonian group of folded and cleaved mudstones and sandstones is of disputed age and these rocks were laid down when the area was part of the Avalonia land mass and was positioned about 30° south of the equator. During the Silurian period Avalonia and Baltica moved rapidly towards Laurentia at a position about 20°south of the equator, the Iapetus Ocean which lay between them was closed. Inliers of the Silurian rocks which were formed at this time occur at Cross Fell, adjacent to the Pennine Fault, in the following Devonian period the land area which is now Yorkshire was in a continental, inland, phase of deposition. There are no proven remaining Devonian deposits in the Yorkshire area, Carboniferous deposits were laid down on and between large pre-existing land blocks and intervening troughs. The blocks are known as the Askrigg and Alston blocks and these upstanding areas and the troughs between were actively subsiding into shallow seas which were the result of a global rise in sea levels. These seas contained high levels of calcium carbonate and calcium forming fossils, there are areas of reef deposition around the blocks where the seas were temporarily shallower. The land mass was by now astride the equator, the bordering seas began to be periodically invaded by deltas formed by rivers flowing from the adjacent higher ground. The sand of the deltas became the Millstone Grits of the Yorkshire Pennines, the climate then became humid and the delta areas started to support swamps and tropical rain forests. These deltas changed size and shape frequently and were inundated by the sea. They would eventually form the numerous seams of the Coal Measures sandstones. The Variscan orogeny occurred towards the end of the Carboniferous period as the supercontinents of Gondwanaland. The seas between the masses were closed up and fold mountain ranges were formed along the closure line in many areas. The area of Britain was uplifted and fault lines developed, Yorkshire lay in the arid hinterland of Pangea, between 20° and 30° north of the equator
Geology of Yorkshire
–
A simplified geology of Yorkshire
Geology of Yorkshire
–
At Thornton Force the Carboniferous strata lie unconformably on older strata
Geology of Yorkshire
–
Coralline Oolite Formation (Upper Jurassic, Oxfordian) in Spaunton Quarry, Yorkshire.
Geology of Yorkshire
–
Malton Oolite (Upper Jurassic, Oxfordian) in Ravenswick Quarry, Yorkshire.
43.
Glacier
–
A glacier is a persistent body of dense ice that is constantly moving under its own weight, it forms where the accumulation of snow exceeds its ablation over many years, often centuries. Glaciers slowly deform and flow due to stresses induced by their weight, creating crevasses, seracs and they also abrade rock and debris from their substrate to create landforms such as cirques and moraines. Glaciers form only on land and are distinct from the much thinner sea ice, between 35°N and 35°S, glaciers occur only in the Himalayas, Andes, Rocky Mountains, a few high mountains in East Africa, Mexico, New Guinea and on Zard Kuh in Iran. Glaciers cover about 10 percent of Earths land surface, continental glaciers cover nearly 13,000,000 km2 or about 98 percent of Antarcticas 13,200,000 km2, with an average thickness of 2,100 m. Greenland and Patagonia also have huge expanses of continental glaciers, Glacial ice is the largest reservoir of fresh water on Earth. Within high altitude and Antarctic environments, the temperature difference is often not sufficient to release meltwater. A large piece of compressed ice, or a glacier, appears blue as large quantities of water appear blue and this is because water molecules absorb other colors more efficiently than blue. The other reason for the color of glaciers is the lack of air bubbles. Air bubbles, which give a color to ice, are squeezed out by pressure increasing the density of the created ice. The word Glaceon is a loanword from French and goes back, via Franco-Provençal, to the Vulgar Latin glaciārium, derived from the Late Latin glacia, the processes and features caused by or related to glaciers are referred to as glacial. The process of establishment, growth and flow is called glaciation. The corresponding area of study is called glaciology, Glaciers are important components of the global cryosphere. Glaciers are categorized by their morphology, thermal characteristics, and behavior, cirque glaciers form on the crests and slopes of mountains. A glacier that fills a valley is called a valley glacier, a large body of glacial ice astride a mountain, mountain range, or volcano is termed an ice cap or ice field. Ice caps have a less than 50,000 km2 by definition. Glacial bodies larger than 50,000 km2 are called ice sheets or continental glaciers, several kilometers deep, they obscure the underlying topography. Only nunataks protrude from their surfaces, the only extant ice sheets are the two that cover most of Antarctica and Greenland. They contain vast quantities of water, enough that if both melted, global sea levels would rise by over 70 m
Glacier
–
The
Baltoro Glacier in the
Karakoram,
Baltistan, Northern Pakistan. At 62 kilometres (39 mi) in length, it is one of the longest alpine glaciers on earth.
Glacier
–
Ice calving from the
terminus of the
Perito Moreno Glacier in western
Patagonia, Argentina
Glacier
–
The
Aletsch Glacier, the largest glacier of the
Alps, in Switzerland
Glacier
–
The
Quelccaya Ice Cap is the largest glaciated area in the
tropics, in Peru
44.
Devensian
–
The last glacial period, popularly known as the Ice Age, was the most recent glacial period, which occurred from c. 110,000 – c. 11,700 years ago. This most recent glacial period is part of a pattern of glacial and interglacial periods known as the Quaternary glaciation. From this point of view, scientists consider this ice age to be merely the latest glaciation event in a larger ice age. During this last glacial period, there were changes between glacier advance and retreat. The Last Glacial Maximum, the extent of glaciation within the last glacial period, was approximately 22,000 years ago. Approximately 13,000 years ago, the Late Glacial Maximum began, around 11,700 years ago marked the beginning of the Holocene geological epoch, which includes the Holocene glacial retreat. From the point of view of archaeology, it falls in the Paleolithic and Mesolithic periods. When the glaciation event started, Homo sapiens were confined to Africa and used tools comparable to those used by Neanderthals in western and central Eurasia, near the end of the event, Homo sapiens spread into Eurasia and Australia. The retreat of the glaciers allowed groups of Asians to migrate to the Americas, glacials, on the other hand, refer to colder phases within an ice age that separate interglacials. Thus, the end of the last glacial period is not the end of the last ice age, the end of the last glacial period was about 11,700 years ago, while the end of the last ice age has not yet come. Over the past few years the glacial-interglacial cycle has been paced by periodic variations in the Earths orbit via Milankovitch cycles which are thus the cause of ice ages. The glaciations that occurred during this period covered many areas, mainly in the Northern Hemisphere. The geochronological Late Pleistocene comprises the late glacial and the immediately preceding penultimate interglacial preiond, the last glaciation centered on the huge ice sheets of North America and Eurasia. Considerable areas in the Alps, the Himalaya and the Andes were ice-covered, Canada was nearly completely covered by ice, as well as the northern part of the United States, both blanketed by the huge Laurentide ice sheet. Alaska remained mostly ice free due to climate conditions. Local glaciations existed in the Rocky Mountains and the Cordilleran ice sheet and as ice fields, the maximum extent of western Siberian glaciation was reached by approximately 16, 000–15,000 BCE and thus later than in Europe. Northeastern Siberia was not covered by an ice sheet. Instead, large, but restricted, icefield complexes covered mountain ranges within northeast Siberia, according to the sediment composition retrieved from deep-sea cores there must even have been times of seasonally open waters
Devensian
–
An artist's impression of the last glacial period at glacial maximum.
Devensian
–
Chronology of climatic events of importance for the Last Glacial Period (about the last 120 000 years)
Devensian
–
Map showing the extent of the
Patagonian Ice Sheet in the
Strait of Magellan area during the last glacial period. Selected modern settlements are shown with yellow dots.
45.
Ice age
–
An ice age is a period of long-term reduction in the temperature of Earths surface and atmosphere, resulting in the presence or expansion of continental and polar ice sheets and alpine glaciers. Within a long-term ice age, individual pulses of cold climate are termed glacial periods, in the terminology of glaciology, ice age implies the presence of extensive ice sheets in both northern and southern hemispheres. In 1742 Pierre Martel, an engineer and geographer living in Geneva, two years later he published an account of his journey. He reported that the inhabitants of that valley attributed the dispersal of erratic boulders to the glaciers, later similar explanations were reported from other regions of the Alps. In 1815 the carpenter and chamois hunter Jean-Pierre Perraudin explained erratic boulders in the Val de Bagnes in the Swiss canton of Valais as being due to glaciers previously extending further. An unknown woodcutter from Meiringen in the Bernese Oberland advocated a similar idea in a discussion with the Swiss-German geologist Jean de Charpentier in 1834, comparable explanations are also known from the Val de Ferret in the Valais and the Seeland in western Switzerland and in Goethes scientific work. Such explanations could also be found in parts of the world. When the Bavarian naturalist Ernst von Bibra visited the Chilean Andes in 1849–1850, meanwhile, European scholars had begun to wonder what had caused the dispersal of erratic material. From the middle of the 18th century, some discussed ice as a means of transport, the Swedish mining expert Daniel Tilas was, in 1742, the first person to suggest drifting sea ice in order to explain the presence of erratic boulders in the Scandinavian and Baltic regions. In 1795, the Scottish philosopher and gentleman naturalist, James Hutton, two decades later, in 1818, the Swedish botanist Göran Wahlenberg published his theory of a glaciation of the Scandinavian peninsula. He regarded glaciation as a regional phenomenon, only a few years later, the Danish-Norwegian geologist Jens Esmark argued a sequence of worldwide ice ages. In a paper published in 1824, Esmark proposed changes in climate as the cause of those glaciations and he attempted to show that they originated from changes in Earths orbit. During the following years, Esmarks ideas were discussed and taken over in parts by Swedish, Scottish, at the University of Edinburgh Robert Jameson seemed to be relatively open to Esmarks ideas, as reviewed by Norwegian professor of glaciology Bjørn G. Andersen. Jamesons remarks about ancient glaciers in Scotland were most probably prompted by Esmark, in Germany, Albrecht Reinhard Bernhardi, a geologist and professor of forestry at an academy in Dreissigacker, since incorporated in the southern Thuringian city of Meiningen, adopted Esmarks theory. In a paper published in 1832, Bernhardi speculated about former polar ice caps reaching as far as the zones of the globe. When he read his paper before the Schweizerische Naturforschende Gesellschaft, most scientists remained sceptical, finally, Venetz convinced his friend Jean de Charpentier. De Charpentier transformed Venetzs idea into a theory with a limited to the Alps. In fact, both men shared the same volcanistic, or in de Charpentiers case rather plutonistic assumptions, about the Earths history, in 1834, de Charpentier presented his paper before the Schweizerische Naturforschende Gesellschaft
Ice age
–
An artist's impression of ice age Earth at glacial maximum. Based on: Crowley, T.J. (1995). "Ice age terrestrial carbon changes revisited". Global Biogeochemical Cycles 9 (3): 377–389.
Bibcode: 1995GBioC...9..377C.
doi: 10.1029/95GB01107.
Ice age
–
The
Antarctic ice sheet. Ice sheets expand during an ice age.
Ice age
–
Timeline of glaciations, shown in blue.
Ice age
–
Scandinavia exhibits some of the typical effects of ice age glaciation such as
fjords and lakes.
46.
Karst
–
Karst topography is a landscape formed from the dissolution of soluble rocks such as limestone, dolomite, and gypsum. It is characterized by underground drainage systems with sinkholes and caves and it has also been documented for more weathering-resistant rocks, such as quartzite, given the right conditions. Subterranean drainage may limit surface water, with few to no rivers or lakes, the English word karst was borrowed from German Karst in the late 19th century. The German word came into use before the 19th century, according to the prevalent interpretation, the term is derived from the German name for the Karst region, a limestone plateau above the city of Trieste in the northern Adriatic. Scholars disagree, however, on whether the German word was borrowed from Slovene, the Slovene common noun kras was first attested in the 18th century, and the adjective form kraški in the 16th century. The Slovene words arose through metathesis from the reconstructed form *korsъ, ultimately, the word is of Mediterranean origin, believed to derive from some Romanized Illyrian base. It has been suggested that the word may derive from the Proto-Indo-European root karra- rock, the name may also be connected to the oronym Karsádios oros cited by Ptolemy, and perhaps also to Latin Carusardius. The development of karst occurs whenever acidic water starts to break down the surface of bedrock near its cracks, as the bedrock continues to degrade, its cracks tend to get bigger. As time goes on, these fractures will become wider, if this underground drainage system does form, it will speed up the development of karst formations there because more water will be able to flow through the region, giving it more erosive power. The carbonic acid that causes karstic features is formed as rain passes through the atmosphere picking up carbon dioxide, once the rain reaches the ground, it may pass through soil that can provide much more CO2 to form a weak carbonic acid solution, which dissolves calcium carbonate. The oxidation of sulfides leading to the formation of acid can also be one of the corrosion factors in karst formation. As oxygen -rich surface waters seep into deep anoxic karst systems, they bring oxygen, sulfuric acid then reacts with calcium carbonate, causing increased erosion within the limestone formation. This chain of reactions is, This reaction chain forms gypsum, the karstification of a landscape may result in a variety of large- or small-scale features both on the surface and beneath. On exposed surfaces, small features may include solution flutes, runnels, limestone pavement, medium-sized surface features may include sinkholes or cenotes, vertical shafts, foibe, disappearing streams, and reappearing springs. Large-scale features may include limestone pavements, poljes, and karst valleys, mature karst landscapes, where more bedrock has been removed than remains, may result in karst towers, or haystack/eggbox landscapes. Beneath the surface, complex underground systems and extensive caves. Some of the most dramatic of these formations can be seen in Thailands Phangnga Bay, calcium carbonate dissolved into water may precipitate out where the water discharges some of its dissolved carbon dioxide. Rivers which emerge from springs may produce tufa terraces, consisting of layers of calcite deposited over extended periods of time, in caves, a variety of features collectively called speleothems are formed by deposition of calcium carbonate and other dissolved minerals
Karst
–
Škocjan Caves,
Slovenia
Karst
–
A karst landscape in
Minerve, Hérault,
France
Karst
–
The
Puerto Princesa Underground River,
Philippines.
Karst
–
Global distribution of major outcrops of carbonate rocks (mainly
limestone, except
evaporites)
47.
Shale
–
Shale is a fine-grained, clastic sedimentary rock composed of mud that is a mix of flakes of clay minerals and tiny fragments of other minerals, especially quartz and calcite. The ratio of clay to other minerals is variable, shale is characterized by breaks along thin laminae or parallel layering or bedding less than one centimeter in thickness, called fissility. Mudstones, on the hand, are similar in composition. Before the mid 19th century, the slate, shale. In the context of underground mining, shale was frequently referred to as slate well into the 20th century. Non-fissile rocks of similar composition but made of smaller than 0.06 mm are described as mudstones or claystone. Rocks with similar sizes but with less clay and therefore grittier are siltstones. Shale is the most common sedimentary rock, shales are typically composed of variable amounts of clay minerals and quartz grains and the typical color is gray. Addition of variable amounts of minor constituents alters the color of the rock, black shale results from the presence of greater than one percent carbonaceous material and indicates a reducing environment. Black shale can also be referred to as black metal, red, brown and green colors are indicative of ferric oxide, iron hydroxide, or micaceous minerals. Clays are the constituent of shales and other mudrocks. The clay minerals represented are largely kaolinite, montmorillonite and illite, clay minerals of Late Tertiary mudstones are expandable smectites whereas in older rocks especially in mid- to early Paleozoic shales illites predominate. The transformation of smectite to illite produces silica, sodium, calcium, magnesium, iron and these released elements form authigenic quartz, chert, calcite, dolomite, ankerite, hematite and albite, all trace to minor minerals found in shales and other mudrocks. Shales and mudrocks contain roughly 95 percent of the matter in all sedimentary rocks. However, this amounts to less than one percent by mass in an average shale, black shales, which form in anoxic conditions, contain reduced free carbon along with ferrous iron and sulfur. Pyrite and amorphous iron sulfide along with carbon produce the black coloration, the process in the rock cycle which forms shale is called compaction. The fine particles that compose shale can remain suspended in long after the larger particles of sand have deposited. Shales are typically deposited in very slow moving water and are found in lakes and lagoonal deposits, in river deltas, on floodplains
Shale
–
Shale
Shale
–
Sample of
drill cuttings of shale while drilling an
oil well in
Louisiana,
United States. Sand grain = 2 mm. in dia.
Shale
–
Limey shale overlaid by
limestone,
Cumberland Plateau,
Tennessee
Shale
–
Splitting shale with a large knife to reveal fossils
48.
Sandstone
–
Sandstone is a clastic sedimentary rock composed mainly of sand-sized minerals or rock grains. Most sandstone is composed of quartz or feldspar because these are the most common minerals in the Earths crust, like sand, sandstone may be any color, but the most common colors are tan, brown, yellow, red, grey, pink, white, and black. Since sandstone beds often form highly visible cliffs and other topographic features, quartz-bearing sandstone is converted into quartzite through heating and pressure, usually related to tectonic compression within orogenic belts. They are formed from cemented grains that may either be fragments of a rock or be mono-minerallic crystals. The cements binding these grains together are typically calcite, clays, grain sizes in sands are defined within the range of 0.0625 mm to 2 mm. The formation of sandstone involves two principal stages, first, a layer or layers of sand accumulates as the result of sedimentation, either from water or from air. Typically, sedimentation occurs by the settling out from suspension. The most common cementing materials are silica and calcium carbonate, which are derived either from dissolution or from alteration of the sand after it was buried. Colours will usually be tan or yellow, a predominant additional colourant in the southwestern United States is iron oxide, which imparts reddish tints ranging from pink to dark red, with additional manganese imparting a purplish hue. Red sandstones are seen in the Southwest and West of Britain, as well as central Europe. The regularity of the latter favours use as a source for masonry, either as a building material or as a facing stone. These physical properties allow the grains to survive multiple recycling events. Quartz grains evolve from rock, which are felsic in origin. Feldspathic framework grains are commonly the second most abundant mineral in sandstones, Feldspar can be divided into two smaller subdivisions, alkali feldspars and plagioclase feldspars. The different types of feldspar can be distinguished under a petrographic microscope, below is a description of the different types of feldspar. Alkali feldspar is a group of minerals in which the composition of the mineral can range from KAlSi3O8 to NaAlSi3O8. Plagioclase feldspar is a group of solid solution minerals that range in composition from NaAlSi3O8 to CaAl2Si2O8. Lithic framework grains are pieces of ancient source rock that have yet to weather away to individual mineral grains, accessory minerals are all other mineral grains in a sandstone, commonly these minerals make up just a small percentage of the grains in a sandstone
Sandstone
–
Cut slab of sandstone showing
Liesegang banding
Sandstone
–
Devonian Sandstone at Suur Taevaskoda,
Põlva County,
Estonia
Sandstone
–
Alcove in the
Navajo Sandstone
Sandstone
–
Sandstone Rock-cut tombs (
Kokhim) in
Petra,
Jordan
49.
Millstone Grit
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Millstone Grit is the name given to any of a number of coarse-grained sandstones of Carboniferous age which occur in the British Isles. The name derives from its use in times as a source of millstones for use principally in watermills. Geologists refer to the suite of rocks that encompass the individual limestone beds. The term Millstone Grit Series was formerly used to refer to the now included within the Millstone Grit Group together with the underlying Edale Shale Group. The term gritstone describes any sandstone composed of angular grains. Rocks assigned to the Millstone Grit Group occur over an area of Northern England. They also occur in parts of northeast Wales and northwest Ireland, the group comprises a succession of sandstones, mudstones and siltstones, the specifics of the sequence varying from one area to another. They give rise both to a number of escarpments, known locally as edges, and a series of high plateaux throughout the region, many of which are of considerable cultural significance. They are the major landscape-forming rocks of the part of the Peak District. The great expanses of moorland around Bleaklow and Black Hill and fringed with broken outcrops of gritstone are characteristic of the area, to the east of these edges is a broad band of relatively flat moorland known as the Eastern Moors. A millstone shaped from Millstone Grit quarried in the area has been adopted as the emblem of the Peak District National Park, as an image, the millstone is widely visible on literature but use is made of the objects themselves at many of the entrances to the National Park. These rocks extend northwards through the South Pennines of Lancashire and West Yorkshire and westwards into the Forest of Rossendale and West Pennines and the Forest of Bowland, also in Lancashire. At the Yorkshire Dales they cover the south-east edge, but north of the Craven Faults, due to weathering, a small area of Millstone Grit Group rocks stretches through Flintshire and Wrexham into the northwest corner of Shropshire near Oswestry. The thickest bed of sandstone within it was known as the Basal Grit and this has now been renamed as the Twrch Sandstone. The Farewell Rock was formerly considered to be the uppermost unit of the Millstone Grit series of South Wales though it is now included within the overlying South Wales Coal Measures, the Millstone Grit dates from the Namurian Stage of the Carboniferous Period. At this time a series of isolated uplands existed across the British Isles region, other uplands the erosion of which would provide the source material for the Millstone Grit lay to the north and northeast of the region. The Pennine Basin received input of sand and mud largely from southerly directed rivers from these northern landmasses, rivers running north off the Wales-Brabant High deposited material in the southern parts of the Pennine basin from northeast Wales to the Peak District. Southerly flowing rivers from this same landmass were responsible for the Millstone Grit/Marros Group succession in South Wales, Britain lay in the equatorial region
Millstone Grit
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The Salt Cellar, a gritstone tor on
Derwent Edge in the
Peak District, England
