1.
New South Wales
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New South Wales is a state on the east coast of Australia. It borders Queensland to the north, Victoria to the south and it has a coast line with the Tasman Sea on its east side. The Australian Capital Territory is an enclave within the state, New South Wales state capital is Sydney, which is also Australias most populous city. In March 2014, the population of New South Wales was 7.5 million. Just under two-thirds of the population,4.67 million. Inhabitants of New South Wales are referred to as New South Welshmen, the Colony of New South Wales was founded as a penal colony in 1788. It originally comprised a more than half of the Australian mainland with its western boundary set at 129th meridian east in 1825, in addition, the colony also included the island territories of New Zealand, Van Diemens Land, Lord Howe Island, and Norfolk Island. During the 19th century, most of the area was detached to form separate British colonies that eventually became New Zealand. However, the Swan River Colony has never administered as part of New South Wales. Lord Howe Island remains part of New South Wales, while Norfolk Island has become a federal Territory, as have the now known as the Australian Capital Territory. The prior inhabitants of New South Wales were the Aboriginal tribes who arrived in Australia about 40,000 to 60,000 years ago, before European settlement there were an estimated 250,000 Aboriginal people in the region. The Wodi Wodi people are the custodians of the Illawarra region of South Sydney. The Bundjalung people are the custodians of parts of the northern coastal areas. The European discovery of New South Wales was made by Captain James Cook during his 1770 survey along the eastern coast of the Dutch-named continent of New Holland. In his original journal covering the survey, in triplicate to satisfy Admiralty Orders, Cook first named the land New Wales, however, in the copy held by the Admiralty, he revised the wording to New South Wales. After years of chaos and anarchy after the overthrow of Governor William Bligh, macquaries legacy is still evident today. During the 19th century, large areas were separated to form the British colonies of Tasmania, South Australia, Victoria. Responsible government was granted to the New South Wales colony in 1855, following the Treaty of Waitangi, William Hobson declared British sovereignty over New Zealand in 1840
2.
Australian Capital Territory
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The Australian Capital Territory is the federal district in the south east of Australia, enclaved within New South Wales. Its only city is Canberra, the city of Australia. The ACT also has a strip of territory around the southern end of the Beecroft Peninsula. The need for a territory was flagged by colonial delegates during the Federation conventions of the late 19th century. Section 125 of the Australian Constitution provided that, following Federation in 1901, the territory was transferred to the Commonwealth by the state of New South Wales in 1911, two years prior to the naming of Canberra as the national capital in 1913. The floral emblem of the ACT is the royal bluebell and the emblem is the gang-gang cockatoo. The economic activity of the Australian Capital Territory is heavily concentrated around Canberra and this trend continued into 2016, when the territory was ranked the third best performing out of all of Australias states and territories. There is a proportion of young adults in the region compared with other Australian states or territories. Approximately one-fifth of ACT residents were born outside of Australia, mainly in the United Kingdom, almost one-fifth speak a language other than English at home, the most common being Chinese. The ACT also has a strip of territory around the southern end of the Beecroft Peninsula. Apart from the city of Canberra, the Australian Capital Territory also contains agricultural land, small townships and communities located within the ACT include Williamsdale, Naas, Uriarra, Tharwa and Hall. There are a range of mountains, rivers and creeks in the Namadgi National Park. These include the Naas and Murrumbidgee Rivers, Canberra is noted for its warm to hot, dry summers, and cold winters with occasional fog and frequent frosts. Many of the mountains in the territorys south-west are snow-covered for at least part of the winter. Thunderstorms can occur between October and March, and annual rainfall is 623 mm, with rainfall highest in spring and summer, the highest maximum temperature recorded in the ACT was 42.8 °C at Acton on 11 January 1939. The lowest minimum temperature was −14.6 °C at Gudgenby on 11 July 1971, notable geological formations in the Australian Capital Territory include the Canberra Formation, the Pittman Formation, Black Mountain Sandstone and State Circle Shale. In the 1840s fossils of brachiopods and trilobites from the Silurian period were discovered at Woolshed Creek near Duntroon, at the time, these were the oldest fossils discovered in Australia, though this record has now been far surpassed. Other specific geological places of interest include the State Circle cutting, the oldest rocks in the ACT date from the Ordovician around 480 million years ago
3.
Queensland
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Queensland is the second-largest and third-most-populous state in the Commonwealth of Australia. Situated in the north-east of the country, it is bordered by the Northern Territory, South Australia and New South Wales to the west, south-west, to the east, Queensland is bordered by the Coral Sea and Pacific Ocean. Queensland has a population of 4,750,500, concentrated along the coast, the state is the worlds sixth largest sub-national entity, with an area of 1,852,642 km2. The capital and largest city in the state is Brisbane, Australias third largest city, often referred to as the Sunshine State, Queensland is home to 10 of Australias 30 largest cities and is the nations third largest economy. Tourism in the state, fuelled largely by its tropical climate, is a major industry. Queensland was first inhabited by Aboriginal Australians and Torres Strait Islanders, the first European to land in Queensland was Dutch navigator Willem Janszoon in 1606, who explored the west coast of the Cape York Peninsula near present-day Weipa. In 1770, Lieutenant James Cook claimed the east coast of Australia for the Kingdom of Great Britain. The colony of New South Wales was founded in 1788 by Governor Arthur Phillip at Sydney, New South Wales at that time included all of what is now Queensland, Queensland was explored in subsequent decades until the establishment of a penal colony at Brisbane in 1824 by John Oxley. Penal transportation ceased in 1839 and free settlement was allowed from 1842, the state was named in honour of Queen Victoria, who on 6 June 1859 signed Letters Patent separating the colony from New South Wales. The 6th of June is now celebrated statewide as Queensland Day. Queensland achieved statehood with the Federation of Australia on 1 January 1901, the history of Queensland spans thousands of years, encompassing both a lengthy indigenous presence, as well as the eventful times of post-European settlement. The north-eastern Australian region was explored by Dutch, Spanish and French navigators before being encountered by Lieutenant James Cook in 1770, the Australian Labor Party has its origin as a formal organisation in Queensland and the town of Barcaldine is the symbolic birthplace of the party. June 2009 marked the 150th anniversary of its creation as a colony from New South Wales. The Aboriginal occupation of Queensland is thought to predate 50,000 BC, likely via boat or land bridge across Torres Strait, during the last ice age Queenslands landscape became more arid and largely desolate, making food and other supplies scarce. This led to the worlds first seed-grinding technology, warming again made the land hospitable, which brought high rainfall along the eastern coast, stimulating the growth of the states tropical rainforests. In February 1606, Dutch navigator Willem Janszoon landed near the site of what is now Weipa and this was the first recorded landing of a European in Australia, and it also marked the first reported contact between European and Aboriginal Australian people. The region was explored by French and Spanish explorers prior to the arrival of Lieutenant James Cook in 1770. Cook claimed the east coast under instruction from King George III of the United Kingdom on 22 August 1770 at Possession Island, naming Eastern Australia, including Queensland, the Aboriginal population declined significantly after a smallpox epidemic during the late 18th century
4.
Australia
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Australia, officially the Commonwealth of Australia, is a country comprising the mainland of the Australian continent, the island of Tasmania and numerous smaller islands. It is the worlds sixth-largest country by total area, the neighbouring countries are Papua New Guinea, Indonesia and East Timor to the north, the Solomon Islands and Vanuatu to the north-east, and New Zealand to the south-east. Australias capital is Canberra, and its largest urban area is Sydney, for about 50,000 years before the first British settlement in the late 18th century, Australia was inhabited by indigenous Australians, who spoke languages classifiable into roughly 250 groups. The population grew steadily in subsequent decades, and by the 1850s most of the continent had been explored, on 1 January 1901, the six colonies federated, forming the Commonwealth of Australia. Australia has since maintained a liberal democratic political system that functions as a federal parliamentary constitutional monarchy comprising six states. The population of 24 million is highly urbanised and heavily concentrated on the eastern seaboard, Australia has the worlds 13th-largest economy and ninth-highest per capita income. With the second-highest human development index globally, the country highly in quality of life, health, education, economic freedom. The name Australia is derived from the Latin Terra Australis a name used for putative lands in the southern hemisphere since ancient times, the Dutch adjectival form Australische was used in a Dutch book in Batavia in 1638, to refer to the newly discovered lands to the south. On 12 December 1817, Macquarie recommended to the Colonial Office that it be formally adopted, in 1824, the Admiralty agreed that the continent should be known officially as Australia. The first official published use of the term Australia came with the 1830 publication of The Australia Directory and these first inhabitants may have been ancestors of modern Indigenous Australians. The Torres Strait Islanders, ethnically Melanesian, were originally horticulturists, the northern coasts and waters of Australia were visited sporadically by fishermen from Maritime Southeast Asia. The first recorded European sighting of the Australian mainland, and the first recorded European landfall on the Australian continent, are attributed to the Dutch. The first ship and crew to chart the Australian coast and meet with Aboriginal people was the Duyfken captained by Dutch navigator, Willem Janszoon. He sighted the coast of Cape York Peninsula in early 1606, the Dutch charted the whole of the western and northern coastlines and named the island continent New Holland during the 17th century, but made no attempt at settlement. William Dampier, an English explorer and privateer, landed on the north-west coast of New Holland in 1688, in 1770, James Cook sailed along and mapped the east coast, which he named New South Wales and claimed for Great Britain. The first settlement led to the foundation of Sydney, and the exploration, a British settlement was established in Van Diemens Land, now known as Tasmania, in 1803, and it became a separate colony in 1825. The United Kingdom formally claimed the part of Western Australia in 1828. Separate colonies were carved from parts of New South Wales, South Australia in 1836, Victoria in 1851, the Northern Territory was founded in 1911 when it was excised from South Australia
5.
Language family
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A language family is a group of languages related through descent from a common ancestral language or parental language, called the proto-language of that family. Linguists therefore describe the languages within a language family as being genetically related. Estimates of the number of living languages vary from 5,000 to 8,000, depending on the precision of ones definition of language, the 2013 edition of Ethnologue catalogs just over 7,000 living human languages. A living language is one that is used as the primary form of communication of a group of people. There are also dead and extinct languages, as well as some that are still insufficiently studied to be classified. Membership of languages in a family is established by comparative linguistics. Sister languages are said to have a genetic or genealogical relationship, speakers of a language family belong to a common speech community. The divergence of a proto-language into daughter languages typically occurs through geographical separation, individuals belonging to other speech communities may also adopt languages from a different language family through the language shift process. Genealogically related languages present shared retentions, that is, features of the proto-language that cannot be explained by chance or borrowing, for example, Germanic languages are Germanic in that they share vocabulary and grammatical features that are not believed to have been present in the Proto-Indo-European language. These features are believed to be innovations that took place in Proto-Germanic, language families can be divided into smaller phylogenetic units, conventionally referred to as branches of the family because the history of a language family is often represented as a tree diagram. A family is a unit, all its members derive from a common ancestor. Some taxonomists restrict the term family to a level. Those who affix such labels also subdivide branches into groups, a top-level family is often called a phylum or stock. The closer the branches are to other, the closer the languages will be related. For example, the Celtic, Germanic, Slavic, Romance, there is a remarkably similar pattern shown by the linguistic tree and the genetic tree of human ancestry that was verified statistically. Languages interpreted in terms of the phylogenetic tree of human languages are transmitted to a great extent vertically as opposed to horizontally. A speech variety may also be considered either a language or a dialect depending on social or political considerations, thus, different sources give sometimes wildly different accounts of the number of languages within a family. Classifications of the Japonic family, for example, range from one language to nearly twenty, most of the worlds languages are known to be related to others
6.
Sydney
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Sydney /ˈsɪdni/ is the state capital of New South Wales and the most populous city in Australia and Oceania. Located on Australias east coast, the metropolis surrounds the worlds largest natural harbour, residents of Sydney are known as Sydneysiders. The Sydney area has been inhabited by indigenous Australians for at least 30,000 years, the first British settlers, led by Captain Arthur Phillip, arrived in 1788 to found Sydney as a penal colony, the first European settlement in Australia. Since convict transportation ended in the century, the city has transformed from a colonial outpost into a major global cultural. As at June 2016 Sydneys estimated population was 5,005,358, in the 2011 census,34 percent of the population reported having been born overseas, representing many different nationalities and making Sydney one of the most multicultural cities in the world. There are more than 250 different languages spoken in Sydney and about one-third of residents speak a language other than English at home and it is classified as an Alpha+ World City by the Globalization and World Cities Research Network, indicating its influence in the region and throughout the world. Ranked eleventh in the world for economic opportunity, Sydney has a market economy with strengths in finance, manufacturing. Its gross regional product was $337 billion in 2013, the largest in Australia, there is a significant concentration of foreign banks and multinational corporations in Sydney and the city is promoted as one of Asia Pacifics leading financial hubs. Its natural features include Sydney Harbour, the Royal National Park, man-made attractions such as the Sydney Opera House, Sydney Tower and the Sydney Harbour Bridge are also well known to international visitors. The first people to inhabit the now known as Sydney were indigenous Australians having migrated from northern Australia. Radiocarbon dating suggests human activity first started to occur in the Sydney area from around 30,735 years ago, the earliest British settlers called them Eora people. Eora is the term the indigenous used to explain their origins upon first contact with the British. Its literal meaning is from this place, prior to the arrival of the British there were 4,000 to 8,000 native people in Sydney from as many as 29 different clans. Sydney Cove from Port Jackson to Petersham was inhabited by the Cadigal clan, the principal language groups were Darug, Guringai, and Dharawal. The earliest Europeans to visit the area noted that the people were conducting activities such as camping and fishing, using trees for bark and food, collecting shells. Development has destroyed much of the citys history including that of the first inhabitants, there continues to be examples of rock art and engravings located in the protected Ku-ring-gai Chase National Park. The first meeting between the people and the British occurred on 29 April 1770 when Lieutenant James Cook landed at Botany Bay on the Kurnell Peninsula. He noted in his journal that they were confused and somewhat hostile towards the foreign visitors, Cook was on a mission of exploration and was not commissioned to start a settlement
7.
Canberra
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Canberra is the capital city of Australia. With a population of 381,488, it is Australias largest inland city, the city is located at the northern end of the Australian Capital Territory,280 km south-west of Sydney, and 660 km north-east of Melbourne. A resident of Canberra is known as a Canberran, the site of Canberra was selected for the location of the nations capital in 1908 as a compromise between rivals Sydney and Melbourne, Australias two largest cities. It is unusual among Australian cities, being a planned city outside of any state, similar to Washington, D. C. in the United States. Following an international contest for the design, a blueprint by American architects Walter Burley Griffin and Marion Mahony Griffin was selected. The Griffins plan featured geometric motifs such as circles, hexagons and triangles, the citys design was influenced by the garden city movement and incorporates significant areas of natural vegetation that have earned Canberra the title of the bush capital. Although the Australian Capital Territory is now self-governing, the Commonwealth Government retains some influence through the National Capital Authority, the Australian Armys officer corps is trained at the Royal Military College, Duntroon and the Australian Defence Force Academy is also located in the capital. The ACT is independent of any state to prevent any one state from gaining an advantage by hosting the seat of Commonwealth power, the ACT has voting representation in the Commonwealth Parliament, and has its own independent Legislative Assembly and government, similar to the states. Compared to the averages, the unemployment rate is lower. Property prices are high, in part due to comparatively restrictive development regulations. An 1830s map of the region by Major Mitchell indeed does mark the Sullivans Creek floodplain between two mountains as Nganbra. Nganbra or Nganbira could readily have been anglicised to the name Canberry, survey plans of the district dated 1837 refer to the area as the Canberry Plain. Although popularly pronounced /ˈkænbərə/ or /ˈkænbɛrə/, the pronunciation at its official naming in 1913 was /ˈkæn. brə/. Before white settlement, the area in which Canberra would eventually be constructed was seasonally inhabited by Indigenous Australians, archaeological evidence of settlement in the region includes inhabited rock shelters, rock paintings and engravings, burial places, camps and quarry sites, and stone tools and arrangements. Artefacts suggests early human activity occurred at some point in the area 21,000 years previously, European exploration and settlement started in the Canberra area as early as the 1820s. There were four expeditions between 1820 and 1824, white settlement of the area probably dates from 1823, when a homestead or station was built on what is now the Acton peninsula by stockmen employed by Joshua John Moore. He formally applied to purchase the site on 16 December 1826, on 30 April 1827, Moore was told by letter that he could retain possession of 1,000 acres at Canberry. The European population in the Canberra area continued to grow throughout the 19th century
8.
Language death
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In linguistics, language death occurs when a language loses its last native speaker. Language death may affect any language idiom, including dialects and languages, Language death should not be confused with language attrition, which describes the loss of proficiency in a language at the individual level. Top-to-bottom language death, when language shift begins in an environment such as the government. This is a process of assimilation which may be voluntary or may be forced upon a population and this process is gradual and can occur from either bottom-to-top or top-to-bottom. Languages with a small, geographically isolated population of speakers can also die when their speakers are wiped out by genocide, disease, a language is often declared to be dead even before the last native speaker of the language has died. If there are only a few speakers of a language remaining. A language that has reached such a stage of use is generally considered moribund. Half of the languages of the world are not being taught to new generations of children. This is rarely a sudden event, but a process of each generation learning less and less of the language, until its use is relegated to the domain of traditional use, such as in poetry. One example of this process reaching its conclusion is that of the Dalmatian language, Language death can be fast, when the children are taught to avoid their parents language for reasons such as work opportunities and social status. Many children are rather being taught a lingua franca with English being the most widespread, at other times, minority languages survive much longer, for example when the speakers try to isolate themselves against a majority population. Often, especially historically, governments have tried to promote language death and this process of change has been described by Appel in two categories, though they are not mutually exclusive. Often speakers replace elements of their own language with something from the language they are shifting toward, also, if their heritage language has an element that the new language does not, speakers may drop it. Language revitalization is an attempt to slow or reverse language death, revitalization programs are ongoing in many languages, and have had varying degrees of success. Even in the case of Hebrew, there is a theory that argues that the Hebrew revivalists who wished to speak pure Hebrew failed, the result is a fascinating and multifaceted Israeli language, which is not only multi-layered but also multi-sourced. The revival of a dead language is unlikely without cross-fertilization from the revivalists mother tongue. Other cases of language revitalization which have some degree of success are Irish, Welsh, Hawaiian, Cherokee. There are various ethical, aesthetic and utilitarian benefits of language revival—for example, historical justice, diversity and employability, linguists distinguish between language death and the process where a language becomes a dead language through normal language change, a linguistic phenomenon analogous to pseudoextinction
9.
Koala
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The koala is an arboreal herbivorous marsupial native to Australia. It is the only extant representative of the family Phascolarctidae and its closest living relatives are the wombats, the koala is found in coastal areas of the mainlands eastern and southern regions, inhabiting Queensland, New South Wales, Victoria, and South Australia. It is easily recognisable by its stout, tailless body and large head with round, fluffy ears and large, the koala has a body length of 60–85 cm and weighs 4–15 kg. Pelage colour ranges from grey to chocolate brown. Koalas from the populations are typically smaller and lighter in colour than their counterparts further south. These populations possibly are separate subspecies, but this is disputed, Koalas typically inhabit open eucalypt woodlands, and the leaves of these trees make up most of their diet. Because this eucalypt diet has limited nutritional and caloric content, koalas are largely sedentary and they are asocial animals, and bonding exists only between mothers and dependent offspring. Adult males communicate with loud bellows that intimidate rivals and attract mates, males mark their presence with secretions from scent glands located on their chests. Being marsupials, koalas give birth to underdeveloped young that crawl into their mothers pouches and these young koalas, known as joeys, are fully weaned around a year old. Koalas have few predators and parasites, but are threatened by various pathogens, such as Chlamydiaceae bacteria. Koalas were hunted by indigenous Australians and depicted in myths and cave art for millennia, the first recorded encounter between a European and a koala was in 1798, and an image of the animal was published in 1810 by naturalist George Perry. Botanist Robert Brown wrote the first detailed description of the koala in 1814. Popular artist John Gould illustrated and described the koala, introducing the species to the general British public, further details about the animals biology were revealed in the 19th century by several English scientists. Because of its appearance, the koala is recognised worldwide as a symbol of Australia. Koalas are listed as of Vulnerable by the International Union for Conservation of Nature, the Australian government similarly lists specific populations in Queensland and New South Wales as Vulnerable. The animal was hunted heavily in the early 20th century for its fur, sanctuaries were established, and translocation efforts moved to new regions koalas whose habitat had become fragmented or reduced. The biggest threat to their existence is habitat destruction caused by agriculture, the word koala comes from the Dharug gula. Although the vowel u was originally written in the English orthography as oo, it was changed to oa, because of the koalas supposed resemblance to a bear, it was often miscalled the koala bear, particularly by early settlers
10.
Yuin
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Three of the Yuin groups include, Walbanga, north of present-day Narooma Murramurang, north of Deua River south of Lake Conjola. Dyiringanj, or Djiringanj, from Narooma, south to Bega, the population before 1788 has been estimated at about 11000 between Cape Howe and Batemans Bay. The population was reduced to only 600 by the mid nineteenth century due to epidemics in 1789 and 1830, as well as tribal battles. 1858, d.1919 Sydney, married to Gunaal alias Rosie Carpenter from Roseby Park, children Harry, Edward, Percy, Frank, Kate, biamangas mother Elizabeth Turner was the daughter of Ko, ma of Dry River. Biamanga was given the task of Biambun because Merriman had no living children and he was given a Breast plate in 1912 which read Biamanga, King of Wallaga Lake and Bega District, born Bredbatoura. This plate is in a private Australian collection, the Eurobodalla Shire Council signed a Local Agreement with the Yuin people in 1998. In 2001, a Memorandum of Understanding was signed between the Bega, Eden and Merrimans Local Aboriginal Land Councils, the Native Title Holders, the Yuin are considered as the traditional owners of Wallaga Lake land. The former Wallaga Lake National Park is incorporated into Gulaga National Park, Merriman Island in Wallaga Lake is a sacred place for the Yuin people. On 25 November 1977, it was the first place in New South Wales to be declared an Aboriginal Heritage site by the New South Wales National Parks, the island was named after King Merriman, leader of the Yuin, who died in 1904. Mumbulla Mountain, located in the middle of Bega Valley Shire, was named in November 1973, after Jack Mumbulla, Mumbulla Mountain is the central place of significance in Biamanga National Park. Certain areas have been recognised as a meeting places for Aboriginal men and women. Mount Dromedary, recently renamed Gulaga Mountain, in the Gulaga National Park, is described by Aboriginal people as the place of origin for Yuin people. Gulaga itself symbolises the mother and provides a basis for Aboriginal spiritual identity, on 6 May 2006 the freehold titles to Gulaga and Biamanga National Parks were handed back to the Yuin people by the New South Wales Government. Montague Island is known to the Yuin people as Barranguba, Barranguba is regarded as being the son of Gulaga, along with Najanuga, Barranguba being the oldest son and allowed out to sea, whereas Najanuga had to stay close to his mother. The Yuin are also known as, Yuwin, Djiringanj, Dyirringan, ausAnthrop Australian Aboriginal tribal database entry for Thaua Accessed 9 June 2008 Tindale, Norman Djiringanj in his Catalogue of Australian Aboriginal Tribes. Accessed 92008 Portion of Norman Tindales Tribal Boundary Map including Djiringanj, Thaua, Walbanga, & Wandandian Accessed from South Australian Museum website 9 June 2008
11.
South Coast (New South Wales)
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The South Coast refers to the narrow coastal belt from Sydney in the north to the border with Victoria in the south in the south-eastern part of the State of New South Wales, Australia. To the east is the coastline of the Pacific Ocean, which is characterised by rolling farmlands, small towns and villages along a coastline, interspersed by numerous beaches. Some definitions of the include the Illawarra, but it is often seen as a separate. The region has a mild, warm temperate climate, maximum temperatures range from around 30 °C in summer to approximately 17 °C in winter. However, rainfall tends toward erratic as falls can occur in heavy and these storms may occur at any time of year, but are most frequent in late autumn and early winter. When a strong anticyclone is located to the south of these systems, rainfalls of up to 350mm in a day. For example, in May 1925 the region received an averages of as much as 860 millimetres of rain, with some receiving as much as 1. However, in dry years the region can receive as little as 400mm for an entire year, furthermore, Bega received 380mm in May 1944 and over 400mm in two days during April 1945 - but only around 200mm in the ten months in between. A2011 report by the Climate Commission highlighted the risks of the effects of change in the South Coast. These risks included a higher likelihood of fires, coastal flooding, changing rainfall patterns. The Illawarra Steam Navigation Company serviced the south coast and Illawarra by ship transporting passengers, bus services operate to locations south of Nowra. The South Coast region is traversed by the Princes Highway which links Sydney and Melbourne by the coast, the region is reached from Canberra to the west by the Kings Highway. Road linkages north to Sydney were only completed in the half of the twentieth century when the Clyde River was bridged at Batemans Bay in 1956. Before that a punt was used to cross the river
12.
Ngarigo
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The Ngarigo people are some of the Indigenous inhabitants living in South East Australia, and whose traditional lands extended from Canberra to Cooma, on the Monaro and Limestone Plains. However, as stated by the South Australia Museum where his maps are archived, further south various dialects of Ngarigu are spoken by other tribes. However, as concluded in the 2013 ACT Government report Our Kin Our Country, the Ngarigo/Ngarmal are an Aboriginal group whose traditional lands lie in the Monaro and Australian Alpine regions of New South Wales and Victoria, and the Canberra and Queanbeayan area. With their hunting areas being taken over by European settlers running sheep, the population also decreased due to the spread of diseases introduced by the Europeans, such as smallpox, syphilis, influenza, measles and tuberculosis. Thus, all that was left were mixed race people working either as labourers or domestic servants, many people were moved to New South Wales government settlements, such as at Yass. By 1880 there were no full blood Aboriginal people living in the Canberra area, according to some scholars, the language of the Wolgalu is a form of Ngarigu, others that it is the other way round. A southern dialect, of Ngarigu was used as far south as Goongerah in Victoria, the last two both spoke dialects of Ngarigu. The present dispute originated when Tindall in his 1940 and 1974 maps incorrectly drew its boundaries with that of Ngarigo/Nguramal, the report confirmed that the language spoken in the Canberra region was a dialect of Ngarigu, related to but distinguishable from the dialects spoken at Tumut and Monaro. The evidence that the language spoken in the Canberra Based on known disputes between the two tribes, the boundary ran from north of Sutton on the Yass River to Wee Jasper on the Murrumbidee. However, the claim of the status is disputed by some Aboriginal people who say that the Ngambri are a small family clan of the Wiradjuri nation. However latest research shows, Walegulu were the south of Cooma in the Australian Alps. In 2013, an ACT Government anthropological report was released concluding that the struggle between various groups for the mantle of Canberras first people is likely to remain uncertain. The report concluded that evidence gathered from the mid-1700s onward was too scant to support any familys claims, Aboriginal and European Encounter in the Canberra Region Aboriginals on the Monaro
13.
Sydney language
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The Sydney language, also referred to as Darug or Iyora, is an Australian Aboriginal language of the Yuin–Kuric group that is spoken in the region of Sydney, New South Wales. It is the language of the Darug and Eora peoples. The term Dharug, which can also be spelt Darug, Dharukk, Dharoog, Dharrag, Dharug is the root, or the midyini, of the languages of the Sydney basin. The Darug population was greatly diminished since the onset of colonisation, Darug people recognise Sir William Dawes of the first fleet and flagship the Sirius as the first to record the original traditional tongue of the elder people of Sydney Darugule-wayaun. During the 1990s and the new millennium some descendants of the Darug clans in Western Sydney have been making efforts to revive Dharug as a spoken language. Today some modern Dharug speakers have given speeches in the Dharug language and younger members of the community visit schools, bowern lists Dharuk and Iyora as separate languages. The speakers did not use a name for their language prior to settlement by the First Fleet. The coastal dialect has been referred to as Iyora, which means people, while the inland dialect has been referred to as Dharug. Both names are used to refer to all dialects of the language collectively. The indigenous people identify themselves as Eora, literally meaning the people, the language of the people is also called Eora. The language may have had a distinction of length. Although Dharug is classified as extinct, there is an amount of descendants of the darug nations who still speak it. The darug language has acquired current living speakers through the efforts of Chifley Colleges Dunheved campus in Sydney
14.
Awabakal language
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Awabakal is an Australian Aboriginal language that was spoken around Lake Macquarie and Newcastle in New South Wales. The name is derived from Awaba, which was the name of the lake. Awabakal is a Pama–Nyungan language, most closely related to the Worimi language, Awabakal was studied by the Reverend Lancelot Threlkeld from 1825 until his death in 1859. The speaker of Awabakal who taught him about the language was Biraban, Threlkeld and Birabans Specimens of a Dialect of the Aborigines of New South Wales in 1827 was the earliest attempt at exhibiting the structure of an Australian language. The 1892 An Australian language as spoken by the Awabakal, the people of Awaba, or lake Macquarie contains a grammar, the language is currently being revived. A new orthography and reconstruction of the phonology has been undertaken, to date, several publications have been produced. Awabakal ceased to be a language since long before the creation of recording equipment. Therefore, the exactness of the sounds will never be historically precise. This process has, however, produced one which will be satisfactory for the purpose of revitalisation, like many other similarities of Australian aboriginals with south Indian people, these vowels also have similarities with Tamil language vowels. The first has 4 declension patterns, a noun can exist in any of 13 cases. 1st class – Common nouns, descriptors, demonstratives and Minaring, 2nd class – Place names, words of spatial relations and Wonta. 3rd class – Persons names, kinships terms and Ngaan, the default, unmarked case of nouns is the absolutive. Unlike English and many European languages, in which a noun in the nominative case. There is a category of words in Awabakal called descriptors and they can stand as referring terms and are in these cases similar to nouns, like adjectives or intransitive verbs/predicative verb-adjective phrases. They can be declined into nominal cases, the numbers are, singular, dual and plural with a feminine/masculine distinction in the first person. They mark verbs for person, number, case and voice, the ergative enclitcs imply an active transitive situation and the accusative implies a passive intransitive situation. There are three true pronouns which could be called a nominative or topic case, there are only found at the beginning of an independent clause. These pronominals are found in ergative, accusative, dative and possessive cases and they are declined for 10 cases
15.
Nganyaywana language
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Nganyaywana is an extinct Australian Aboriginal language of New South Wales. Once included in the Kuric languages, Bowern classifies Nganyaywana as a separate Anēwan branch of the Pama–Nyungan languages, besides Nganyaywana, Anewan may include Enneewin, with which shares about 65% of its vocabulary. Crowley counts these as distinct languages, whereas Wafer and Lissarrague consider them to be dialects, dyangadi languages Bibliography of Nganyaywana language and people resources, at the Australian Institute of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Studies
16.
Wayback Machine
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The Internet Archive launched the Wayback Machine in October 2001. It was set up by Brewster Kahle and Bruce Gilliat, and is maintained with content from Alexa Internet, the service enables users to see archived versions of web pages across time, which the archive calls a three dimensional index. Since 1996, the Wayback Machine has been archiving cached pages of websites onto its large cluster of Linux nodes and it revisits sites every few weeks or months and archives a new version. Sites can also be captured on the fly by visitors who enter the sites URL into a search box, the intent is to capture and archive content that otherwise would be lost whenever a site is changed or closed down. The overall vision of the machines creators is to archive the entire Internet, the name Wayback Machine was chosen as a reference to the WABAC machine, a time-traveling device used by the characters Mr. Peabody and Sherman in The Rocky and Bullwinkle Show, an animated cartoon. These crawlers also respect the robots exclusion standard for websites whose owners opt for them not to appear in search results or be cached, to overcome inconsistencies in partially cached websites, Archive-It. Information had been kept on digital tape for five years, with Kahle occasionally allowing researchers, when the archive reached its fifth anniversary, it was unveiled and opened to the public in a ceremony at the University of California, Berkeley. Snapshots usually become more than six months after they are archived or, in some cases, even later. The frequency of snapshots is variable, so not all tracked website updates are recorded, Sometimes there are intervals of several weeks or years between snapshots. After August 2008 sites had to be listed on the Open Directory in order to be included. As of 2009, the Wayback Machine contained approximately three petabytes of data and was growing at a rate of 100 terabytes each month, the growth rate reported in 2003 was 12 terabytes/month, the data is stored on PetaBox rack systems manufactured by Capricorn Technologies. In 2009, the Internet Archive migrated its customized storage architecture to Sun Open Storage, in 2011 a new, improved version of the Wayback Machine, with an updated interface and fresher index of archived content, was made available for public testing. The index driving the classic Wayback Machine only has a bit of material past 2008. In January 2013, the company announced a ground-breaking milestone of 240 billion URLs, in October 2013, the company announced the Save a Page feature which allows any Internet user to archive the contents of a URL. This became a threat of abuse by the service for hosting malicious binaries, as of December 2014, the Wayback Machine contained almost nine petabytes of data and was growing at a rate of about 20 terabytes each week. Between October 2013 and March 2015 the websites global Alexa rank changed from 162 to 208, in a 2009 case, Netbula, LLC v. Chordiant Software Inc. defendant Chordiant filed a motion to compel Netbula to disable the robots. Netbula objected to the motion on the ground that defendants were asking to alter Netbulas website, in an October 2004 case, Telewizja Polska USA, Inc. v. Echostar Satellite, No.02 C3293,65 Fed. 673, a litigant attempted to use the Wayback Machine archives as a source of admissible evidence, Telewizja Polska is the provider of TVP Polonia and EchoStar operates the Dish Network
17.
International Standard Book Number
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The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
18.
Languages of Australia
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Australia has no official language, but is largely monolingual with English being the de facto national language. Australian English has an accent and vocabulary. A considerable proportion of first and second generation migrants are bilingual, according to Ethnologue, 81% of people spoke English at home, including L2 speakers. Other languages spoken at home included Chinese 2. 9%, Italian 1. 2%, Arabic 1. 1%, Greek 1%, Vietnamese 0. 9%, there were almost 400 languages spoken by Indigenous Australians prior to the arrival of Europeans. Only about 70 of these languages have survived and all but 30 of these are now endangered and it is believed that there were almost 400 Australian Aboriginal languages at the time of first European contact. Most of these are now extinct or moribund, with only about fifteen languages still being spoken among all age groups of the relevant tribes. An indigenous language remains the language for about 50,000 people. Australia has a language known as Auslan, which is the main language that approximately 10,000 deaf people use. The Aboriginal languages with the most speakers today are Arrernte, Kala Lagaw Ya, Tiwi, Walmajarri, Warlpiri, all the indigenous languages of Tasmania are extinct today, and little reliable information about them was recorded. Two languages are spoken on the islands of the Torres Strait, within Australian territory, by the Melanesian inhabitants of the area, Kala Lagaw Ya, Meriam Mir is a Papuan language, while Kala Lagaw Ya is an Australian language. Two English-based creoles have arisen in Australia after European contact, Kriol, Kriol is spoken in the Northern Territory, and Torres Strait Creole in Queensland. Broome Pearling Lugger Pidgin was a used as a lingua franca between Malays, Japanese, Vietnamese, Torres Strait Islanders and Aborigines on pearling boats. There has been a decline in the percentage of Australians who speak only English at home since at least 2001. According to the 2001 census, English was the language spoken in the home for around 80% of the population. By the 2006 census it had fallen to close to 79%, while in the 2011 census, other languages spoken at home included Mandarin 1. 6%, Italian 1. 4%, Arabic 1. 3%, Cantonese 1. 2% and Greek 1. 2%. In the 2001 census,2,843,851 Australians reported speaking a language other than English at home, according to Ethnologue, Languages of Australia in 2016 include, Diminutives in Australian English Ethnologue report for Australia Census Data
19.
Australian English
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Australian English is a major variety of the English language, used throughout Australia. Although English has no status in the Constitution, Australian English is the countrys de facto official language and is the first language of the majority of the population. Australian English began to diverge from British English after the founding of the Colony of New South Wales in 1788 and was recognised as being different from British English by 1820. It arose from the intermingling of early settlers from a variety of mutually intelligible dialectal regions of the British Isles. Australian English differs from other varieties of English in vocabulary, accent, pronunciation, register, grammar, the earliest form of Australian English was first spoken by the children of the colonists born into the colony of New South Wales. This first generation of children created a new dialect that was to become the language of the nation, the Australian-born children in the new colony were exposed to a wide range of dialects from all over the British Isles, in particular from Ireland and South East England. The native-born children of the created the new dialect from the speech they heard around them. Even when new settlers arrived, this new dialect was strong enough to blunt other patterns of speech, a quarter of the convicts were Irish. Many had been arrested in Ireland, and some in Great Britain, many, if not most, of the Irish spoke Irish and either no English at all, or spoke it poorly and rarely. There were other significant populations of convicts from non-English speaking part of Britain, such as the Scottish Highlands, anthony Burgess writes that Australian English may be thought of as a kind of fossilised Cockney of the Dickensian era. According to linguist Bruce Moore, the input of the various sounds that went into constructing the Australian accent was from south-east England. Some elements of Aboriginal languages have adopted by Australian English—mainly as names for places, flora and fauna. Many such are localised, and do not form part of general Australian use, while others, such as kangaroo, boomerang, budgerigar, wallaby, other examples are cooee and hard yakka. The former is used as a call, for attracting attention. Cooee is also a distance, if hes within cooee. Hard yakka means hard work and is derived from yakka, from the Jagera/Yagara language once spoken in the Brisbane region, also of Aboriginal origin is the word bung, from the Sydney pidgin English, meaning dead, with some extension to broken or useless. Many towns or suburbs of Australia have also influenced or named after Aboriginal words. The best-known example is the capital, Canberra, named after a local word meaning meeting place
20.
Upper Arrernte language
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Arrernte or Aranda or more specifically Upper Arrernte, is a dialect cluster spoken in and around Alice Springs in the Northern Territory, Australia. The name is sometimes spelled Arunta or Arrarnta, there is much debate on whether these are dialects of an Arrernte language, or separate languages, both among linguists and among the Arrernte people themselves. Lower Arrernte, however, is clearly distinct, /ɰ~ʁ/ is described as velar by Breen & Dobson, and as uvular by Henderson. Prenasalized stops are voiced throughout, prestopped nasals are voiceless during the stop, all dialects have at least /ə a/. The vowel system of Arrernte is unusual in that there are only two vowel phonemes, /a/ and /ə/. Two-vowel systems are rare worldwide, but are also found in some Northwest Caucasian languages. There is no variation in different consonantal contexts for the vowels. Instead, the phonemes can be realised by various different articulations in free variation, for example, the phoneme /ə/ can be pronounced in any context. The underlying syllable structure of Arrernte is argued to be VC, with obligatory codas, underlying phrase-initial /ə/ is realised as zero, except before a rounded consonant where, by a rounding process of general applicability, it is realised as. It is also common for phrases to carry a final corresponding to no underlying segment, among the evidence for this analysis is that some suffixes have suppletive variants for monosyllabic and bisyllabic bases. Stems that appear monosyllabic and begin with a consonant in fact select the bisyllabic variant, stress falls on the first nucleus preceded by a consonant, which by this analysis can be stated more uniformly as the second underlying syllable. And the frequentative is formed by reduplicating the final VC syllable of the verb stem, Arrernte orthography does not write word-initial /ə/, and adds an e to the end of every word. Arrernte has fairly free word order but tends towards SOV and it is generally ergative, but is accusative in its pronouns. Pronouns may be marked for duality and skin group, pronouns decline with a nominative rather than ergative alignment, Body parts normally require non-possessive pronouns, though younger speakers may use possessives in this case too. The Arrernte have a highly developed sign language, in most primary schools in Alice Springs, students are taught Arrernte as a compulsory language, often alongside the French or Indonesian languages. Future plans are that it will be included as a university subject, many Alice Springs workplaces require that employees learn at least basic Arrernte to communicate effectively with the large numbers of Arrernte people. Many workplaces offer learning of Arrernte as an option and will fund the course, peter Sculthorpes music theatre work Rites of Passage is written partly in Arrernte and partly in Latin. Western and Southern Arrernte were also used in parts of the libretto for Andrew Schultz and Gordon Williams Journey to Horseshoe Bend, based on the novel by T. G. H. Strehlow
21.
Kalaw Lagaw Ya
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Kalaw Lagaw Ya, or the Western Torres Strait language, is the language indigenous to the central and western Torres Strait Islands, Queensland, Australia. On some islands it has now largely replaced by Brokan. Before colonisation in the 1870s–1880s, it was the lingua franca of the area in both Australia and Papua, and is still widely spoken by neighbouring Papuans and by some Aboriginal people. How many second language speakers it has is unknown and it also has a light form, as well as a pidginised form. The simplified form is prevalent on Badu and neighbouring Moa. Mabuiag Westen or West Torres or Western Torres Strait Dhadhalagau Ya Sentrel or Central Islands, one of the very few length contrasts in the Kalaw Lagaw Ya dialect is kaaba dance performance, knot in bamboo etc. vs kaba, kab paddle, oar. Such length contrasts are more widespread in the other dialects, the exceptions are the small class or words that include ber rib and kab oar, paddle, and emotive words. Emotive words are those that equate to an extent to diminutives in languages such as Irish, Dutch and German. Emotive words in the Kalaw Lagaw Ya dialect include familiar kinship terms, 2) Syntax The main syntactic differences are, a) Verb negative construction, In all dialects except Kalau Kawau Ya, the verb negative is the nominalised privative form of the verbal noun. In the other dialects bongel last night is a fully functioning temporal adverb used in conjunction with either the today past or the recent past, KKY -pa in all cases, -ka often in poetry/singing. In stems of three or more syllables, the suffix is reduced to -l in all dialects, while retained as -lai with stems of one syllable, however, these have allophonic variants /tʃ/ and /dʒ/, which are the norm in Australia languages. All the stops, except for the t and d, have fricative allophones, thus p can be or, k can be or, b or. Furthermore, it is one of the few Australian languages with fully functioning voiced-voiceless distinctions -, the language is also one of the few Australian languages with only one rhotic, one l and one n. The earliest recorded dialect, Kaiwalgau Ya, however, did have two rhotics, the tap and the glide, the rhotic glide has in general become /j/, /w/ or zero in the other dialects, rarely /r/. Notes, The consonant /d/ varies to some extent with /r/, particularly in KKY/KY kadai-/karai-, the long vowel ùù is only found in Kala Lagaw Ya. Length is to a certain extent contrastive, and partly allophonic, the +/-round contrast is reminiscent of Papuan phonology. The mid long vowels are allophonic variants of the mid short vowels that are in the process of developing phonemic status, while the short vowel ò is similarly in origin an allophone of òò. In normal speech, vowel shortening and the change of a to œ are the norm, which the changes of e to i and o to u are sporadic, and most common in unstressed syllables
22.
Pintupi dialect
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Pintupi is an Australian Aboriginal language. It is one of the Wati languages of the large Pama–Nyungan family and it is one of the varieties of the Western Desert Language. These people moved into the communities of Papunya and Haasts Bluff in the west of the Northern Territory in the 1940s–1980s. The last Pintupi people to leave their traditional lifestyle in the desert came into Kiwirrkura in 1984, over recent decades they have moved back into their traditional country, setting up the communities of Kintore in the Northern Territory, Kiwirrkura and Jupiter Well in Western Australia. This has continued through the moves west so that most Pintupi people today speak Pintupi-Luritja, Pintupi is one of the healthier Aboriginal languages and is taught to local children in schools. The phonology of Pintupi has been described by K. C. and L. E, Hansen based on fieldwork conducted in Papunya, Northern Territory in 1967–68. The symbols used in the orthography are shown in brackets where they differ from the IPA symbols. The lamino-alveolars are frequently palatalised, and /t̻/ often has an affricated allophone, the trill /r/ usually has a single contact in ordinary speech, but multiple contacts in slow, emphatic, or angry speech. The retroflex approximant /ɻ/ may also be realised as a flap, Hansen and Hansen refer to the retroflex consonants as apico-domal. Pintupi has six vowel phonemes, three long and three short, all are monophthongal at the phonemic level. Again, the used in the practical orthography are shown enclosed in brackets where they differ from the phonemic symbols. The short vowel phonemes are devoiced when word-final at the end of a clause, as in he finally to camp, we all water for him, short vowels are rhotacised before retroflex consonants, as in tree, spear, and a shelter. The open vowel /a/ is diphthongised to and before /j/ and /w/ respectively, as in pare, an orthography was developed by the Hansens and is used in their publications, which include a dictionary, a grammar sketch and bible portions. This orthography is used in the bilingual school, and especially in the schools Literature Production Centre. The orthography is shown in the tables of consonants and vowels. Pintupi has only two possible types, CV and CVC. In the middle of a word, /m/ and /ŋ/ may appear in the syllable coda only when followed by a plosive, as in /t̻ampu/ left side. Otherwise, only coronal sonorants may appear in the syllable coda, all consonants except the apico-alveolars and /l̻/ may appear in word-initial position, only coronal sonorants may appear in word-final position
23.
Tiwi language
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Tiwi /ˈtiːwi/ is an Australian Aboriginal language spoken on the Tiwi Islands, within sight of the coast of northern Australia. It is one of about 10% of Australian languages still being learned by children, Traditional Tiwi, spoken by people over the age of fifty by 2005, is a polysynthetic language. However, this grammatical complexity has been lost among younger generations, Tiwi has around one hundred nominals that can be incorporated into verbs, most of them quite different from the corresponding free forms. Unlike other Australian languages, which were once lumped together in a language family. Like most Australian languages, Tiwi has four distinct series of coronal stops. There are contrasting alveolar and postalveolar consonants, the latter often called retroflex. That is, phonologically Tiwi has at most three series, however, some analyses treat postalveolar as a sequence /ɻt/, since it only occurs in medial position. In addition, Tiwi has a velar approximant, which is unusual for an Australian language. Typically for an Australian language, there are no fricatives, Tiwi allows consonant clusters in medial position. Besides the possibility of /ɻt/ for, these include other liquid-stop clusters, however, there is little reason to choose between an analysis of /mp/ as being a cluster as opposed to a prenasalized stop. There is also a stop in the inventory of speech sounds in Tiwi. The frequency of the open-back vowel /o/ is relatively low and it is neutralised with /a/ following /w/, and does not occur initially or finally. All vowels are short, while long vowels occur when medial glides are reduced. For example, /paɻuwu/ Tiwi is characterized by its highly complex verb morphology, Osborne identifies eleven grammatical categories that can be marked on verbs. They are listed using his terminology. All verbs must be marked for tense, person and number, all other categories listed below are not grammatically obligatory. Verbal categories after Osborne The terminology Osborne uses for the categories, in particular the aspects. Tiwi, like many Indigenous Australian languages, does not distinguish between nouns and adjectives, both things and properties or qualities of those things are encoded by the nominal word class
