1.
Diyarbekir Vilayet
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The Vilayet of Diyâr-ı Bekr was a first-level administrative division of the Ottoman Empire. The vilayet extended south from Palu on the Euphrates to Mardin and Nisibin on the edge of the Mesopotamian plain, after the establishment of Republic of Turkey in 1923, the region was incorporated into the newly created state. At the beginning of the 20th century it reportedly had an area of 18,074 square miles, the accuracy of the population figures ranges from approximate to merely conjectural depending on the region from which they were gathered. The vilayet of Diyarbakir was created in 1867, in 1879-80 one part of the vilayet, which included Malatya, was made the vilayet of Elazig. Media related to Vilayet of Diyarbekir at Wikimedia Commons
2.
Ottoman Empire
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After 1354, the Ottomans crossed into Europe, and with the conquest of the Balkans the Ottoman Beylik was transformed into a transcontinental empire. The Ottomans ended the Byzantine Empire with the 1453 conquest of Constantinople by Mehmed the Conqueror, at the beginning of the 17th century the empire contained 32 provinces and numerous vassal states. Some of these were later absorbed into the Ottoman Empire, while others were granted various types of autonomy during the course of centuries. With Constantinople as its capital and control of lands around the Mediterranean basin, while the empire was once thought to have entered a period of decline following the death of Suleiman the Magnificent, this view is no longer supported by the majority of academic historians. The empire continued to maintain a flexible and strong economy, society, however, during a long period of peace from 1740 to 1768, the Ottoman military system fell behind that of their European rivals, the Habsburg and Russian Empires. While the Empire was able to hold its own during the conflict, it was struggling with internal dissent. Starting before World War I, but growing increasingly common and violent during it, major atrocities were committed by the Ottoman government against the Armenians, Assyrians and Pontic Greeks. The word Ottoman is an anglicisation of the name of Osman I. Osmans name in turn was the Turkish form of the Arabic name ʿUthmān, in Ottoman Turkish, the empire was referred to as Devlet-i ʿAlīye-yi ʿOsmānīye, or alternatively ʿOsmānlı Devleti. In Modern Turkish, it is known as Osmanlı İmparatorluğu or Osmanlı Devleti, the Turkish word for Ottoman originally referred to the tribal followers of Osman in the fourteenth century, and subsequently came to be used to refer to the empires military-administrative elite. In contrast, the term Turk was used to refer to the Anatolian peasant and tribal population, the term Rūmī was also used to refer to Turkish-speakers by the other Muslim peoples of the empire and beyond. In Western Europe, the two names Ottoman Empire and Turkey were often used interchangeably, with Turkey being increasingly favored both in formal and informal situations and this dichotomy was officially ended in 1920–23, when the newly established Ankara-based Turkish government chose Turkey as the sole official name. Most scholarly historians avoid the terms Turkey, Turks, and Turkish when referring to the Ottomans, as the power of the Seljuk Sultanate of Rum declined in the 13th century, Anatolia was divided into a patchwork of independent Turkish principalities known as the Anatolian Beyliks. One of these beyliks, in the region of Bithynia on the frontier of the Byzantine Empire, was led by the Turkish tribal leader Osman, osmans early followers consisted both of Turkish tribal groups and Byzantine renegades, many but not all converts to Islam. Osman extended the control of his principality by conquering Byzantine towns along the Sakarya River and it is not well understood how the early Ottomans came to dominate their neighbours, due to the scarcity of the sources which survive from this period. One school of thought which was popular during the twentieth century argued that the Ottomans achieved success by rallying religious warriors to fight for them in the name of Islam, in the century after the death of Osman I, Ottoman rule began to extend over Anatolia and the Balkans. Osmans son, Orhan, captured the northwestern Anatolian city of Bursa in 1326 and this conquest meant the loss of Byzantine control over northwestern Anatolia. The important city of Thessaloniki was captured from the Venetians in 1387, the Ottoman victory at Kosovo in 1389 effectively marked the end of Serbian power in the region, paving the way for Ottoman expansion into Europe
3.
Istanbul
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Istanbul, historically known as Constantinople and Byzantium, is the most populous city in Turkey and the countrys economic, cultural, and historic center. Istanbul is a city in Eurasia, straddling the Bosphorus strait between the Sea of Marmara and the Black Sea. Its commercial and historical center lies on the European side and about a third of its population lives on the Asian side, the city is the administrative center of the Istanbul Metropolitan Municipality, both hosting a population of around 14.7 million residents. Istanbul is one of the worlds most populous cities and ranks as the worlds 7th-largest city proper, founded under the name of Byzantion on the Sarayburnu promontory around 660 BCE, the city developed to become one of the most significant in history. After its reestablishment as Constantinople in 330 CE, it served as a capital for almost 16 centuries, during the Roman and Byzantine, the Latin. Overlooked for the new capital Ankara during the period, the city has since regained much of its prominence. The population of the city has increased tenfold since the 1950s, as migrants from across Anatolia have moved in, arts, music, film, and cultural festivals were established at the end of the 20th century and continue to be hosted by the city today. Infrastructure improvements have produced a complex transportation network, considered a global city, Istanbul has one of the fastest-growing metropolitan economies in the world. It hosts the headquarters of many Turkish companies and media outlets and accounts for more than a quarter of the gross domestic product. Hoping to capitalize on its revitalization and rapid expansion, Istanbul has bid for the Summer Olympics five times in twenty years, the first known name of the city is Byzantium, the name given to it at its foundation by Megarean colonists around 660 BCE. The name is thought to be derived from a personal name, ancient Greek tradition refers to a legendary king of that name as the leader of the Greek colonists. Modern scholars have hypothesized that the name of Byzas was of local Thracian or Illyrian origin. He also attempted to promote the name Nova Roma and its Greek version Νέα Ῥώμη Nea Romē, the use of Constantinople to refer to the city during the Ottoman period is now considered politically incorrect, even if not historically inaccurate, by Turks. By the 19th century, the city had acquired other names used by foreigners or Turks. Europeans used Constantinople to refer to the whole of the city, pera was used to describe the area between the Golden Horn and the Bosphorus, but Turks also used the name Beyoğlu. The name İstanbul is commonly held to derive from the Medieval Greek phrase εἰς τὴν Πόλιν and this reflected its status as the only major city in the vicinity. The importance of Constantinople in the Ottoman world was reflected by its Ottoman name Der Saadet meaning the gate to Prosperity in Ottoman. An alternative view is that the name evolved directly from the name Constantinople, with the first, a Turkish folk etymology traces the name to Islam bol plenty of Islam because the city was called Islambol or Islambul as the capital of the Islamic Ottoman Empire
4.
Turkey
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Turkey, officially the Republic of Turkey, is a transcontinental country in Eurasia, mainly in Anatolia in Western Asia, with a smaller portion on the Balkan peninsula in Southeast Europe. Turkey is a democratic, secular, unitary, parliamentary republic with a cultural heritage. The country is encircled by seas on three sides, the Aegean Sea is to the west, the Black Sea to the north, and the Mediterranean Sea to the south. The Bosphorus, the Sea of Marmara, and the Dardanelles, Ankara is the capital while Istanbul is the countrys largest city and main cultural and commercial centre. Approximately 70-80% of the countrys citizens identify themselves as ethnic Turks, other ethnic groups include legally recognised and unrecognised minorities. Kurds are the largest ethnic minority group, making up approximately 20% of the population, the area of Turkey has been inhabited since the Paleolithic by various ancient Anatolian civilisations, as well as Assyrians, Greeks, Thracians, Phrygians, Urartians and Armenians. After Alexander the Greats conquest, the area was Hellenized, a process continued under the Roman Empire. The Seljuk Sultanate of Rûm ruled Anatolia until the Mongol invasion in 1243, the empire reached the peak of its power in the 16th century, especially during the reign of Suleiman the Magnificent. During the war, the Ottoman government committed genocides against its Armenian, Assyrian, following the war, the conglomeration of territories and peoples that formerly comprised the Ottoman Empire was partitioned into several new states. Turkey is a member of the UN, an early member of NATO. Turkeys growing economy and diplomatic initiatives have led to its recognition as a regional power while her location has given it geopolitical, the name of Turkey is based on the ethnonym Türk. The first recorded use of the term Türk or Türük as an autonym is contained in the Old Turkic inscriptions of the Göktürks of Central Asia, the English name Turkey first appeared in the late 14th century and is derived from Medieval Latin Turchia. Similarly, the medieval Khazar Empire, a Turkic state on the shores of the Black. The medieval Arabs referred to the Mamluk Sultanate as al-Dawla al-Turkiyya, the Ottoman Empire was sometimes referred to as Turkey or the Turkish Empire among its European contemporaries. The Anatolian peninsula, comprising most of modern Turkey, is one of the oldest permanently settled regions in the world, various ancient Anatolian populations have lived in Anatolia, from at least the Neolithic period until the Hellenistic period. Many of these peoples spoke the Anatolian languages, a branch of the larger Indo-European language family, in fact, given the antiquity of the Indo-European Hittite and Luwian languages, some scholars have proposed Anatolia as the hypothetical centre from which the Indo-European languages radiated. The European part of Turkey, called Eastern Thrace, has also been inhabited since at least forty years ago. It is the largest and best-preserved Neolithic site found to date, the settlement of Troy started in the Neolithic Age and continued into the Iron Age
5.
Fatih
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In 2009, the district of Eminönü, which had been a separate municipality located at the tip of the peninsula, was merged into Fatih because of the small population of Eminönü. Fatih borders the Golden Horn to the north and the Sea of Marmara to the south, while the Western border is demarked by the Theodosian wall, the name Fatih comes from the Ottoman emperor Fatih Sultan Mehmed, and means Conqueror in Turkish, originally from Arabic. The Fatih Mosque built by Mehmed II is in this district and it was on the ruins of the Church of the Holy Apostles, destroyed by earthquakes and years of war, that the Fatih Mosque was built, and around the mosque a large prayer school. The area quickly became a Turkish neighbourhood with a pious character due to the seminary. Some of this piety has endured until today, following the conquest, the Edirnekapı gate in the city walls became the major exit to Thrace, and this rejuvenated the neighbourhoods overlooking the Golden Horn. The last four were named after the founders of various Sufi orders, many other mosques, schools, baths, and fountains in the area were built by military leaders and officials in the Ottoman court. Fires continued to ravage the old city, and the roads that run through the area today are a legacy of all that burning. There are few buildings left in Fatih today, although right up until the 1960s. Nowadays, the district is made up of narrow streets with tightly-packed 5- or 6-floor apartment buildings. At present, Fatih contains areas including Aksaray, Fındıkzade, Çapa, the area has become more and more crowded from the 1960s onwards, and a large portion of the middle-class residents have moved to the Anatolian side and other parts of the city. Fatih was built with some degree of planning by the municipality. Istanbul University which was founded in 1453 is in Fatih, in addition, since 1586, the Orthodox Christian Patriarchate of Constantinople has had its headquarters in the relatively modest Church of St. George in the Fener neighborhood of Fatih. Fatih has many theatres, including the famous Reşat Nuri Sahnesi, the area is well-served with a number of schools, hospitals and public amenities in general. A tramway runs from the docks at Sirkeci, through Sultanahmet, and finally to Aksaray, also, besides the headquarters, some main units of the Istanbul Metropolitan Municipality, including the citys fire department, are based in Fatih. Conservative political parties always do well in this area, küçükçekmece, Başakşehir, Bağcılar, Gaziosmanpaşa, Esenler, Bayrampaşa, Zeytinburnu, and Fatih are home to refugees of Syrian origin. There are 57 neighbourhoods in Fatih as of 2017, Grand Bazaar – as much to look at as to shop in. Spice Bazaar – another Ottoman caravanserai, not as huge as the Grand Bazaar but right on the water, next to Yeni Camii, Sokollu Mehmet Pasha Mosque – in Kadirga District. Today, there are remnants of the sea walls along the Golden Horn and along the Marmara shore
6.
Veterinary education
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Veterinary education is the tertiary education of veterinarians. To become a veterinarian, one must first complete a veterinary degree, aspiring veterinarians can earn several types of degrees, differing by country and involving undergraduate or graduate education. In the United States, schools award the Doctor of Veterinary Medicine degree and this degree is also awarded in Bangladesh, Canada, Ethiopia, Hungary, Iran, Malaysia, Nigeria, Pakistan, Philippines, South Korea, Thailand, Tobago and Trinidad. Other countries offer an equivalent to the North American DVM. In the United Kingdom and countries which have adopted the system of higher education. In the US, a four-year DVM degree such as Bachelor of Veterinary Science, Bachelor of Veterinary Medicine or Bachelor of Veterinary Medicine, in Ireland, the Veterinary Medicine Programme at the University College Dublin awards the Bachelor of Veterinary Medicine. At the University of Edinburgh and the University of Glasgow, the degree awarded is the Bachelor of Veterinary Medicine & Surgery, although Ethiopia awards a Doctor of Veterinary Medicine degree, it is not recognized in the US or Western Europe. About 50 percent of veterinarians own their own business when they graduate from school, nearly every country requires an individual with a veterinary degree to be licensed before practicing. Most countries require a non-national with a degree to pass a separate licensure exam for foreign graduates before practicing. The European Parliament issued a September 30,2005 directive providing EU-wide standards for medical education. All others must pass an examination and register with the South African Veterinary Council, All developed countries and most newly industrialized and developing countries accredit veterinary schools. Accreditation systems vary widely in developing nations, in Mexico El Consejo Nacional de Educación de la Medicina Veterinaria y Zootecnia accredits veterinary medical colleges, although few schools are accredited. The accreditation system is poor in developing nations, Ethiopia has focused on building veterinary medical colleges rather than accrediting existing schools. With almost no accreditation system, the countrys veterinary education is poor, admissions practices, requirements and difficulty vary widely among veterinary schools and by country. Admission is generally competitive, due to the number of places available. Many VMCAS colleges also have additional, individualized application requirements, admissions standards in Europe, South America, Asia, and Africa also vary widely, with many veterinary schools limiting admission to students from their area, state or country. Twenty-five of the 28 veterinary schools in the US are public universities and, by law, in India, federal law requires each veterinary college to reserve 15 percent of its places for students from other parts of India. The Veterinary Council of India conducts the All India Common Entrance Examination, the cost of attending veterinary school also varies widely
7.
Pan-Turkism
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Pan-Turkism is a movement which emerged during the 1880s among Turkic intellectuals of Azerbaijan and the Ottoman Empire, with its aim the cultural and political unification of all Turkic peoples. Turanism is a related movement but a more general term than Turkism. However, researchers and politicians in Turkic ideology have used these terms interchangeably in many sources, ziya Gökalp defined pan-Turkism as a cultural, academic, and philosophical and political concept advocating the unity of Turkic peoples. In research literature, pan-Turkism is used to describe the political, cultural, Turkism began to be used with the prefix pan-. Proponents use the latter as a point of comparison, since Turkic is more a linguistic and this differentiates it from Turkish, which is an ethnic term for people primarily residing in Turkey. Pan-Turkic ideas and reunification movements have been popular since the collapse of the Soviet Union in Central Asian, in 1804, the Tatar theologian Ghabdennasir Qursawi wrote a treatise calling for the modernization of Islam. The Jadids encouraged critical thinking, supporting education and the equality of the sexes, and advocated tolerance for other faiths, Turkic cultural unity, the Jadid movement was founded in 1843 in Kazan. Its aim was a modernization and educational reform, with a national identity for the Turks. Before that they were Muslim subjects of the Russian Empire, which maintained this attitude until its end, after the Wäisi movement, the Jadids advocated national liberation. After 1907, many supporters of Turkic unity immigrated to the Ottoman Empire, the newspaper Türk in Cairo was published by exiles from the Ottoman Empire after the suspension of the 1876 constitution and the persecution of liberal intellectuals. It was the first publication to use the designation as its title. Yusuf Akçura published Three Types of Policy anonymously in 1904, the earliest manifesto of a pan-Turkic nationalism, Akçura argued that the supra-ethnic union espoused by the Ottomans was unrealistic. The Pan-Islamic model had advantages, but Muslim populations were under colonial rule which would oppose unification and he concluded that an ethnic Turkish nation would require the cultivation of a national identity, a pan-Turkish empire would abandon the Balkans and Eastern Europe in favor of Central Asia. The first publication of Three Types of Policy had a negative reaction, the Ottoman Empire had lost its African territory to Italy and would soon lose the Balkans, and pan-Turkish nationalism became a more feasible political strategy. In 1908 the Committee of Union and Progress came to power in Ottoman Turkey, and this contrasted with its largely Muslim ideology dating back to the 16th century, when the sultan was a caliph of his Muslim lands. Leaders like Mustafa Kemal Atatürk acknowledged that such a goal was impossible, the Türk Yurdu Dergisi was founded in 1911 by Akçura. A significant early exponent of pan-Turkism was Enver Pasha, the Ottoman Minister of War and he later became a leader of the Basmachi movement against Russian and Soviet rule in Central Asia. During World War II, the Nazis organized a Turkestan legion composed primarily of soldiers who hoped to develop an independent Central Asian state after the war, the German intrigue bore no fruit
8.
Turkish people
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Turkish people, or the Turks, also known as Anatolian Turks, are a Turkic ethnic group and nation living mainly in Turkey and speaking Turkish, the most widely spoken Turkic language. They are the largest ethnic group in Turkey, as well as by far the largest ethnic group among the speakers of Turkic languages, ethnic Turkish minorities exist in the former lands of the Ottoman Empire. In addition, a Turkish diaspora has been established with modern migration, the ethnonym Turk may be first discerned in Herodotus reference to Targitas, first king of the Scythians, furthermore, during the first century AD. Pomponius Mela refers to the Turcae in the north of the Sea of Azov. The first definite references to the Turks come mainly from Chinese sources in the sixth century, in these sources, Turk appears as Tujue, which referred to the Göktürks. Although Turk refers to Turkish people, it may sometimes refer to the wider language group of Turkic peoples. In the 19th century, the word Türk only referred to Anatolian villagers, the Ottoman ruling class identified themselves as Ottomans, not usually as Turks. In the late 19th century, as the Ottoman upper classes adopted European ideas of nationalism the term Türk took on a more positive connotation. The Turkish-speakers of Anatolia were the most loyal supporters of Ottoman rule, Turkish Jews, Christians, or even Alevis may be considered non-Turks. On the other hand, Kurdish Arab followers of the Sunni branch of Islam who live in eastern Anatolia are sometimes considered Turks, article 66 of the Turkish Constitution defines a Turk as anyone who is bound to the Turkish state through the bond of citizenship. Anatolia was first inhabited by hunter-gatherers during the Paleolithic era, most of the Turkic peoples were followers of Tengriism, sharing the cult of the sky god Tengri, although there were also adherents of Manichaeism, Nestorian Christianity and Buddhism. However, during the Muslim conquests, the Turks entered the Muslim world proper as servants, during the booty of Arab raids, the Turks began converting to Islam after Muslim conquest of Transoxiana through the efforts of missionaries, Sufis, and merchants. Although initiated by the Arabs, the conversion of the Turks to Islam was filtered through Persian, under the Umayyads, most were domestic servants, whilst under the Abbasids, increasing numbers were trained as soldiers. By the ninth century, Turkish commanders were leading the caliphs’ Turkish troops into battle, as the Abbasid caliphate declined, Turkish officers assumed more military and political power taking over or establishing provincial dynasties with their own corps of Turkish troops. During the 11th century the Seljuk Turks who were admirers of the Persian civilization grew in number and were able to occupy the province of the Abbasid Empire. By 1055, the Seljuk Empire captured Baghdad and began to make their first incursions into the edges of Anatolia, when the Seljuk Turks won the Battle of Manzikert against the Byzantine Empire in 1071, it opened the gates of Anatolia to them. Although ethnically Turkish, the Seljuk Turks appreciated and became the purveyors of the Persian culture rather than the Turkish culture, in dire straits, the Byzantine Empire turned to the West for help setting in motion the pleas that led to the First Crusade. Once the Crusaders took Iznik, the Seljuk Turks established the Sultanate of Rum from their new capital, Konya, by the 12th century the Europeans had begun to call the Anatolian region Turchia or Turkey, meaning the land of the Turks
9.
Sociology
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Sociology is the study of social behaviour or society, including its origins, development, organisation, networks, and institutions. It is a science that uses various methods of empirical investigation and critical analysis to develop a body of knowledge about social order, disorder. Many sociologists aim to research that may be applied directly to social policy and welfare. Subject matter ranges from the level of individual agency and interaction to the macro level of systems. The traditional focuses of sociology include social stratification, social class, social mobility, religion, secularization, law, sexuality, the range of social scientific methods has also expanded. Social researchers draw upon a variety of qualitative and quantitative techniques, the linguistic and cultural turns of the mid-twentieth century led to increasingly interpretative, hermeneutic, and philosophic approaches towards the analysis of society. There is often a great deal of crossover between social research, market research, and other statistical fields, Sociology is distinguished from various general social studies courses, which bear little relation to sociological theory or to social-science research-methodology. The US National Science Foundation classifies sociology as a STEM field, Sociological reasoning pre-dates the foundation of the discipline. Social analysis has origins in the stock of Western knowledge and philosophy. The origin of the survey, i. e, there is evidence of early sociology in medieval Arab writings. The word sociology is derived from both Latin and Greek origins, the Latin word, socius, companion, the suffix -logy, the study of from Greek -λογία from λόγος, lógos, word, knowledge. It was first coined in 1780 by the French essayist Emmanuel-Joseph Sieyès in an unpublished manuscript, Sociology was later defined independently by the French philosopher of science, Auguste Comte, in 1838. Comte used this term to describe a new way of looking at society, Comte had earlier used the term social physics, but that had subsequently been appropriated by others, most notably the Belgian statistician Adolphe Quetelet. Comte endeavoured to unify history, psychology and economics through the understanding of the social realm. Comte believed a positivist stage would mark the final era, after conjectural theological and metaphysical phases, Comte gave a powerful impetus to the development of sociology, an impetus which bore fruit in the later decades of the nineteenth century. To say this is not to claim that French sociologists such as Durkheim were devoted disciples of the high priest of positivism. To be sure, beginnings can be traced back well beyond Montesquieu, for example, Marx rejected Comtean positivism but in attempting to develop a science of society nevertheless came to be recognized as a founder of sociology as the word gained wider meaning. For Isaiah Berlin, Marx may be regarded as the father of modern sociology
10.
Young Turk Revolution
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On 24 July 1908, Abdul Hamid capitulated and announced the restoration of Constitution, which established the Second Constitutional Era. After an attempted monarchist counterrevolution in favor of Abdul Hamid the following year, he was deposed, once underground, organizations established their parties. Among them Committee of Union and Progress, and Freedom and Accord Party also known as the Liberal Union or Liberal Entente were major parties, there were smaller parties such as Ottoman Socialist Party. Countering the conservative politics of Abdulhamids reign was the amount of social reform that occurred during time period. The development of a liberal environment in Turkey strengthened the culture. Abdulhamids political circle was close-knit and ever changing, when the sultan abandoned the previous politics from 1876, he suspended the Ottoman Parliament in 1878. This left a small group of individuals able to partake in politics in the Ottoman Empire. In order to preserve the legacy of the Ottoman Empire, many Turks felt a need for modernization of the country, however, Abdulhamids method of rule was not in line with the developing nation. The origins of the lie in the organization of two political factions. Neither agreed with Abdulhamids reign, but each had separate interests, the Liberals were the upper class groups in the Ottoman Empire, and desired a more relaxed form of government with little economic interference. They also pushed for more autonomy of the different ethnic groups, in a slightly lower class formed a different group- the Unionists. Members were of working class, and foremost wanted a secular government and these two groups initially formed out of the same intent- to return to the old constitution, but cultural differences divided them. Members of the tradition, military officers, among the Young Turks revolted. The defense of their state had become a matter of intense professional pride which caused them to raise arms against their state. The event that triggered the Revolution was a meeting in the Baltic port of Reval between Edward VII of the United Kingdom and Nicholas II of Russia in June 1908. The Anglo-Russian Convention of 1907 brought shaky British-Russian relations to the forefront by solidifying boundaries that identified their respective control in Persia, military officers fearing the meeting was a prelude to the partition of Macedonia, Army units in the Balkans mutinied against Sultan Abdülhamid II. A desire to preserve the state, not destroy it, motivated the revolutionaries, the revolt began in July 1908. The sultans attempt to suppress this uprising failed due to the popularity of the movement among the troops themselves, rebellion spread rapidly due to the ideology of Ottomanism
11.
Second Constitutional Era
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The parliament and the constitution of First Constitutional Era had been suspended by Abdul Hamid in 1878 after only two years of functioning. A series of elections during this period resulted in the ascendance of the Committee of Union. The second largest party, with which the CUP was involved in a 2-year power struggle, was the Freedom, the period survived an attempt by reactionaries to re-institute absolutism. The last meeting on 18 March 1920 produced a letter of protest to the Allies, the legal framework was that of Kanûn-ı Esâsî of the First Constitutional Era that had prevailed in 1876. As in 1876, the revived Ottoman Parliament consisted of two chambers, a Senate and a Chamber of Deputies. The Chamber of Deputies was elected by the people, in the ratio of one member for every 50,000 males of the population over the age of 25 who paid taxes. Senators, on the hand, were nominated for life by the Sultan, had to be over 40 years of age. General elections were to place every four years. The general population did not, however, vote directly for the Deputy that he desired to represent him in the Parliament, moreover, the administration of territories was entrusted to these delegates in the elected Administrative Councils. Thus, these Councils were elected and served not only as an electoral college, the parliament convened after the revolution only briefly and rather symbolically. The only task they performed was to call a new election, in the first Parliament, the president of the Chamber of Deputies was a Deputy from Jerusalem, Yusif Dia Pasha Al Khalidi. The new parliament comprised 142 Turks,60 Arabs,25 Albanians,23 Greeks,12 Armenians,5 Jews,4 Bulgarians,3 Serbs and 1 Vlach in the elections of 1908, the CUP could count on the support of about 60 deputies. The CUP, the driving force behind the revolution, managed to gain the upper hand against the Liberal Union. LU was liberal in outlook, bearing a strong British imprint, CUP come as the biggest party among a fragmented parliament by only 60 of the 275 seats. It was about how the government would deal with what these deputies called lacking of the law and order, the rise of assassinations and armed assaults, ethnic and sectarian violence between various communities in the empire was costing both lives and resources. This was an important event as the established system was passing the first test regarding the proper parliamentary conduct. There were members of diplomatic missions among the audience. The new constitution secured the freedom of the press, newspapermen, the first section of the protocol achieved
12.
Islamism
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Islamism is a concept whose meaning has been debated in both public and academic contexts. It is commonly used interchangeably with the terms political Islam or Islamic fundamentalism and these movements have arguably altered the Middle East more than any trend since the modern states gained independence, redefining politics and even borders according to Robin Wright. Some authors hold the term Islamic activism to be synonymous and preferable to Islamism, Central and prominent figures of modern Islamism include Hasan al-Banna, Sayyid Qutb, Abul Ala Maududi, and Ruhollah Khomeini. Some Islamist thinkers emphasize peaceful political processes, whereas Sayyid Qutb in particular called for violence, however, Qutb, unlike modern extremists, denounced the killing of innocents. Following the Arab Spring, some Islamist currents became heavily involved in politics, while others spawned the most aggressive and ambitious Islamist militia to date. A theocratic ideology that seeks to impose any version of Islam over society by law, subsequently, clarified to be, the desire to impose any given interpretation of Islam on society. A movement so broad and flexible it reaches out to everything to everyone in Islam, making it unsustainable. and at the extremes, a violent vehicle for rejectionists and radicals. All who seek to Islamize their environment, whether in relation to their lives in society, their circumstances, or the workplace. Moderate and reformist Islamists who accept and work within the process include parties like the Tunisian Ennahda Movement. Jamaat-e-Islami of Pakistan is basically a socio-political and democratic Vanguard party but has gained political influence through military coup détats in the past. The Islamist groups like Hezbollah in Lebanon and Hamas in Palestine participate in the democratic, following the Arab Spring, Roy has described Islamism as increasingly interdependent with democracy in much of the Arab Muslim world, such that neither can now survive without the other. While Islamist political culture itself may not be democratic, Islamists need democratic elections to maintain their legitimacy, at the same time, their popularity is such that no government can call itself democratic that excludes mainstream Islamist groups. The term, which denoted the religion of Islam, first appeared in English as Islamismus in 1696. The term appears in the U. S. Supreme Court decision in In Re Ross, the term Islamism acquired its contemporary connotations in French academia in the late 1970s and early 1980s. From French, it began to migrate to the English language in the mid-1980s, a 2003 article in Middle East Quarterly states, In summation, the term Islamism enjoyed its first run, lasting from Voltaire to the First World War, as a synonym for Islam. Enlightened scholars and writers generally preferred it to Mohammedanism, eventually both terms yielded to Islam, the Arabic name of the faith, and a word free of either pejorative or comparative associations. To all intents and purposes, Islamic fundamentalism and Islamism have become synonyms in contemporary American usage, the AP Stylebook entry for Islamist now reads as follows, An advocate or supporter of a political movement that favors reordering government and society in accordance with laws prescribed by Islam. Do not use as a synonym for Islamic fighters, militants, extremists or radicals, where possible, be specific and use the name of militant affiliations, al-Qaida-linked, Hezbollah, Taliban, etc
13.
Pan-Islamism
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Pan-Islamism is a political movement advocating the unity of Muslims under one Islamic state – often a Caliphate – or an international organization with Islamic principles. The model pan-Islamism aims for is the years of Islam – the reign of Muhammad. In the modern era, Pan-Islamism was championed by Jamal al-Din al-Afghani who sought unity among Muslims to resist colonial occupation of Muslim lands. Afghani feared that nationalism would divide the Muslim world and believed that Muslim unity was more important than ethnic identity. ”In a review of the articles of his Paris-base newspaper there was nothing favoring political democracy or parliamentarianism. While Afghanis interest in Islamic law and theology was scant, later Pan-Islamism in the world was strongly associated with Islamism. Leading Islamists such as Sayyid Qutb, Abul Ala Maududi, and Ayatollah Khomeini all stressed their belief that a return to traditional Sharia law would make Islam united, in the period of decolonialism following World War II, Arab nationalism overshadowed Islamism which denounced nationalism as un-Islamic. In the Arab world secular pan-Arab parties – Baath and Nasserist parties – had offshoots in almost every Arab country, Islamists suffered severe repression, its major thinker Sayyid Qutb, was imprisoned, underwent torture and was later executed. Following the defeat of Arab armies in the Six-Day War, Islamism, Pan-Islamic Sunni Muslims such as Maududi and the Muslim Brotherhood, embraced the creation of a new Caliphate, at least as a long-term project. Shia leader Ruhollah Khomeini also embraced a united Islamist supra-state but saw it led by a scholar of fiqh. These events galvanised Islamists the world over and heightened their popularity with the Muslim public, throughout the Middle-East, and in particular Egypt, the various branches of the Muslim Brotherhood have significantly challenged the secular nationalist or monarchical Muslim governments. In Pakistan the Jamaat-e-Islami enjoyed popular support especially since the formation of the MMA, since the collapse of the Soviet Union, Hizb-ut-Tahrir has emerged as a Pan-Islamist force in Central Asia and in the last five years has developed some support from the Arab world. Pan-Islamism, Indian Muslims, the Ottomans and Britain, Brill Academic Publishers,1997, commonwealth of Muslim States, a plea for Pan-Islamism, al-Ahibba,1972. Pan-Islam in British Indian Politics, A Study of the Khilafat Movement, 1918-1924, Brill Academic Publishers,1999, the Politics of Pan-Islam, Ideology and Organization. Londonistan, How Britain is Creating a Terror State Within, Pan-Islamism in Oxford Islamic Studies Online al-Afghanis Vision of a Pan-Islamic Civilization al-Afghani Bibliography The Manchester Document
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Ottomanism
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Ottomanism was a concept which developed prior to the First Constitutional Era of the Ottoman Empire. Its proponents believed that it could solve the issues that the empire was facing. Ottomanism was strongly influenced by such as Montesquieu and Rousseau. It promoted equality among the millets, the idea originated amongst the Young Ottomans in areas such as the acceptance of all separate ethnicities in the Empire regardless of their religion, i. e. they were all Ottomans with equal rights. Put simply, Ottomanism stated that all subjects were equal before the law, ideally, all citizens would share a geographical area, a language, culture, and a sense of a non-Ottoman party who were different than them. The essence of the system was not dismantled, but secular organizations. Primary education, conscription, head tax and military service were to be applied to non-Muslims and Muslims alike, Ottomanism was rejected by many in the non-Muslim millets and by many Muslims. To the former, it was perceived as a step towards dismantling their traditional privileges, meanwhile, the Muslims saw it as the elimination of their own superior position. There were claims that Ottomanism was a reaction to the Tanzimat, the inauguration of the Ottoman Parliament contributed to the spirit of reform as all millets were represented in this bicameral assembly. Ottomanism was a form of nationalism, likely inspired and created as a reaction to European ideas of nationalism, following the Tanzimat reforms, Ottomanism developed of a need to bring the Empire together. Previously, the empire was split into many small communities that mostly governed themselves. The Sultan oversaw these communities, however most adhered to their own laws and this was a reason the Ancien Regime Ottoman Empire was so successful, because the Sultan didnt force any major changes on populations as he conquered them. From these instances Ottomanism was developed as a social and political response, Ottomanism enjoyed a revival during the Young Turk Revolution of 1908, and during the Second Constitutional Era. Disappointment in the failure of Ottomanism was integral to the birth of Turkish nationalism during the next decade. Byzantinism Neo-Ottomanism The concept is covered under the section The era of Modern Reform, Tanzimat at History of the Ottoman Empire and Modern Turkey by Stanford J. Shaw, a History of the Modern Middle East
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Kemalism
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Kemalism, also known as Atatürkism, or the Six Arrows, is the founding ideology of the Republic of Turkey. In the early 20th century, Young Turks abandoned Ottoman nationalism in favor of early Turkish nationalism, Kemalism is a modernization philosophy which guided the transition between multi-religious, multi-ethnic Ottoman Empire to the secular, unitary Republic of Turkey. Kemalism sets the boundaries of the process in the Turkish Reformation. Atatürk is the founder of Kemalism, and his doctrine was implemented as state ideology even after his death, there are six fundamental pillars of the ideology, Republicanism, Populism, Nationalism, Secularism, Statism, and Reformism. The principles came to be recognized as unchangeable and sacrosanct, the head of state and other officials are chosen by election rather than inheriting their positions, and their decisions are subject to judicial review. In defending the change from the Ottoman State, Kemalism asserts that all laws of the Republic of Turkey should be inspired by actual needs here on Earth as a tenet of national life. Kemalism advocates a system as the best representative of the wishes of the people. The Kemalist President does not have executive powers, but has limited veto powers. The day-to-day operation of government is the responsibility of the Council of Ministers formed by the Prime Minister, the Kemalist republic is a unitary state in which three organs of state govern the nation as a single unit, with one constitutionally created legislature. On some issues, the power of government is transferred to lower levels, to local elected assemblies represented by mayors. Populism is defined as a revolution aimed to transfer the political power to citizenship. Kemalist populism differs from the Western understanding of the term populism, in Western European culture the construct Populism is a political doctrine where one sides with the people against the elites. In the Ottoman Society the people side to autocracy, theocracy, Kemalism moved the orientation of political power towards the best interest of the general public. Kemalist populism is an extension of the Kemalist modernization movement, in Kemalist populism, in the ideal society, individuals would be able to read religious texts by themselves or have them freely translated. The literacy drive and translation of the Quran to Turkish, for instance, Atatürk stated on a number of occasions that the legitimate rulers of Turkey were common citizens, such as villagers and workers. Kemalist social content does not accept any adjectives placed before the definition of a nation, denies the types of national unity based on racial, religious, totalitarian and fascist ideologies. It strongly opposes any kind of authority, oppression, colonialism, imperialism, sovereignty must belong solely to people without any term, condition, etc. Sovereignty belongs to the people/nation unrestrictedly and unconditionally, Kemalist social content was brought against the political domination of sheikhs, tribal leaders, and Islamism of the Ottoman Empire
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Republic of Turkey
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Turkey, officially the Republic of Turkey, is a transcontinental country in Eurasia, mainly in Anatolia in Western Asia, with a smaller portion on the Balkan peninsula in Southeast Europe. Turkey is a democratic, secular, unitary, parliamentary republic with a cultural heritage. The country is encircled by seas on three sides, the Aegean Sea is to the west, the Black Sea to the north, and the Mediterranean Sea to the south. The Bosphorus, the Sea of Marmara, and the Dardanelles, Ankara is the capital while Istanbul is the countrys largest city and main cultural and commercial centre. Approximately 70-80% of the countrys citizens identify themselves as ethnic Turks, other ethnic groups include legally recognised and unrecognised minorities. Kurds are the largest ethnic minority group, making up approximately 20% of the population, the area of Turkey has been inhabited since the Paleolithic by various ancient Anatolian civilisations, as well as Assyrians, Greeks, Thracians, Phrygians, Urartians and Armenians. After Alexander the Greats conquest, the area was Hellenized, a process continued under the Roman Empire. The Seljuk Sultanate of Rûm ruled Anatolia until the Mongol invasion in 1243, the empire reached the peak of its power in the 16th century, especially during the reign of Suleiman the Magnificent. During the war, the Ottoman government committed genocides against its Armenian, Assyrian, following the war, the conglomeration of territories and peoples that formerly comprised the Ottoman Empire was partitioned into several new states. Turkey is a member of the UN, an early member of NATO. Turkeys growing economy and diplomatic initiatives have led to its recognition as a regional power while her location has given it geopolitical, the name of Turkey is based on the ethnonym Türk. The first recorded use of the term Türk or Türük as an autonym is contained in the Old Turkic inscriptions of the Göktürks of Central Asia, the English name Turkey first appeared in the late 14th century and is derived from Medieval Latin Turchia. Similarly, the medieval Khazar Empire, a Turkic state on the shores of the Black. The medieval Arabs referred to the Mamluk Sultanate as al-Dawla al-Turkiyya, the Ottoman Empire was sometimes referred to as Turkey or the Turkish Empire among its European contemporaries. The Anatolian peninsula, comprising most of modern Turkey, is one of the oldest permanently settled regions in the world, various ancient Anatolian populations have lived in Anatolia, from at least the Neolithic period until the Hellenistic period. Many of these peoples spoke the Anatolian languages, a branch of the larger Indo-European language family, in fact, given the antiquity of the Indo-European Hittite and Luwian languages, some scholars have proposed Anatolia as the hypothetical centre from which the Indo-European languages radiated. The European part of Turkey, called Eastern Thrace, has also been inhabited since at least forty years ago. It is the largest and best-preserved Neolithic site found to date, the settlement of Troy started in the Neolithic Age and continued into the Iron Age
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Turkish nationalism
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Turkish nationalism is a political ideology that promotes and glorifies the Turkish people, as either a national, ethnic, or linguistic group. Turkish nationalism as a contrasts with the supra-national ideology of Pan-Islamism. During the Turkish War of Independence, on December 1,1921 Kemal stated, perhaps we said We are establishing it and we shall complete it. Our enemies said Let us kill them before they complete it, perhaps we said We are establishing it and we shall complete it. Our enemies said, Let us kill them before they complete it and that is the whole problem, instead of bringing pressure and resentment upon ourselves from our enemies. After the Fall of the Ottoman Empire, Mustafa Kemal came to power, Atatürk now spoke positively about the Pan-Turkic view and he wanted to forge closer relationships with other Turkish states in Central Asia and the West. Atatürk introduced Hilaire de Barentons Sun Language Theory into Turkish political and educational circles in 1935, Turkish researchers at the time also came up with the idea that Early Sumerians were proto-Turks. In the early Republican era, some proposed that the origins of the Turkish nationalism should be sought in Anatolia. Hilmi Ziya Ülken, one of the founders of Anatolianism, was objecting to Neo-Ottomanism and Pan-Islamism as well as to Turanism, between 1918 and 1919 he published the periodical Anadolu with Reşat Kayı. In 1919 Ülken wrote a book titled Anadolunun Bugünki Vazifeleri, in 1923, Ülken and his friends published the periodical Anadolu. They worked to form an alternative thought to Ottomanism, Islamism and Turanism, the tension between Pan-Turkic and Pan-Islamic Turkish nationalism persisted in modern Turkey. Following the 1980 Turkish coup détat, the solution of a Turkish-Islamic synthesis was declared the official state ideology. But also it can be only with permission of the minister of justice However, there have been recent indications that Turkey may repeal or modify Article 301, after the embarrassment suffered by some high-profile cases. In May 2007, a law was put into effect allowing Turkey to block Web sites that are deemed insulting to Atatürk, pan-Turkism Kemalism Ottomanism Neo-Ottomanism Turanism Turkification Sun Language Theory 16 Great Turkic Empires Arman, Murat Necip. The Sources Of Banality In Transforming Turkish Nationalism, CEU Political Science Journal, issue,02 /2007, pp. 133–151. Anatolianism, The History of a Failed Metaphor of Turkish Nationalism, paper presented at Middle East Studies Association Conference, Washington, D. C. The Search for National Identity among the Turks, die Welt des Islams, New Series, Vol.8, Issue 3, pp. 165–176. ]Çetin, Zafer M. Tales of past, present, and future, mythmaking and nationalist discourse in Turkish politics. The struggle for hegemony in Turkey, Turkish nationalism as a contemporary force, Journal of Southern Europe and the Balkans
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Turkification
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Turkification is the transformation of entities, or cultures into the various historical Turkic states and cultures, such as the Ottoman Empire. As the Turkic states developed and grew, there were instances of this cultural shift. The term is used in the Greek language since the 1300s or late-Byzantine era as εκτουρκισμός and it literally means becoming Muslim or Turk. For example, Είχε τουρκέψει κάτω από βία, τον καιρό της άτυχης εκείνης επανάστασης του1770, τούρκεμα κανονικό με σουνέτι από Τούρκο παπά and he had been turkified by force, at the time of the unfortunate revolution of 1770. A real turkification, with circumcision by a Turkish priest, apart from persons, it may refer also to cities that were conquered by Turks or churches that were converted to mosques. Rather, it signifies the conversion of Slavic people to Islam during Ottoman rule of the Balkans. Andrew Mango describes the diversity of phenotypes amongst the Turkish people as follows, The Turkish nation took shape in the centuries of Seljuk and they intermarried with them, while many local people converted to Islam and turned Turk. They were joined by Muslims from the north of the Black Sea and the Caucasus, by Persian craftsmen and Arab scholars. As a result, the Turks today exhibit a variety of ethnic types. A numerically small, but commercially and intellectually important, group is descended from converts from Judaism, one can hear Turks describe some of their fellow countrymen as hatchet-nosed Lazes, dark Arabs, or even fellahs. Anatolia was home to different peoples in ancient times who were either natives or settlers and invaders. Byzantine authorities routinely conducted large-scale population transfers in an effort to impose religious uniformity, after the subordination of the First Bulgarian Empire in 1018, for instance, much of its army was resettled in Eastern Anatolia. The Byzantines were particularly keen to assimilate the large Armenian population, to that end, in the eleventh century, the Armenian nobility were removed from their lands and resettled throughout western Anatolia. An unintended consequence of this resettlement was the loss of military leadership along the eastern frontier. Beginning in the century, war with Turks led to the deaths of many in the native population. As areas became depopulated, Turkic nomads moved in with their herds, one mark of the progress of Turkification was that by the 1330s, place names in Anatolia had changed from Greek to Turkish. They were then converted to Islam with the objective of selecting and training the ablest children for the military or civil service of the Empire. Started by Murad I as a means to counteract the power of the Turkish nobility
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Turkish language
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Outside of Turkey, significant smaller groups of speakers exist in Germany, Bulgaria, Macedonia, Northern Cyprus, Greece, the Caucasus, and other parts of Europe and Central Asia. Cyprus has requested that the European Union add Turkish as an official EU language, in 1928, as one of Atatürks Reforms in the early years of the Republic of Turkey, the Ottoman Turkish alphabet was replaced with a Latin alphabet. The distinctive characteristics of Turkish are vowel harmony and extensive agglutination, the basic word order of Turkish is subject–object–verb. Turkish has no classes or grammatical gender. Turkish has a strong T–V distinction and usage of honorifics, Turkish uses second-person pronouns that distinguish varying levels of politeness, social distance, age, courtesy or familiarity toward the addressee. The plural second-person pronoun and verb forms are used referring to a person out of respect. Turkic languages belong to the Altaic language group, the Turkic family comprises some 30 living languages spoken across Eastern Europe, Central Asia, and Siberia. Turkish is a member of the Oghuz group of languages, a subgroup of the Turkic language family, there is a high degree of mutual intelligibility between Turkish and the other Oghuz Turkic languages, including Azerbaijani, Turkmen, Qashqai, Gagauz, and Balkan Gagauz Turkish. The earliest known Old Turkic inscriptions are the three monumental Orkhon inscriptions found in modern Mongolia, erected in honour of the prince Kul Tigin and his brother Emperor Bilge Khagan, these date back to the second Turk Kaghanate. The Seljuqs of the Oghuz Turks, in particular, brought their language, following the adoption of Islam c. Turkish literature during the Ottoman period, particularly Divan poetry, was influenced by Persian, including the adoption of poetic meters. One of the tasks of the newly established association was to initiate a reform to replace loanwords of Arabic. By banning the usage of imported words in the press, the association succeeded in removing several hundred words from the language. While most of the words introduced to the language by the TDK were newly derived from Turkic roots, owing to this sudden change in the language, older and younger people in Turkey started to differ in their vocabularies. While the generations born before the 1940s tend to use the terms of Arabic or Persian origin. The past few decades have seen the work of the TDK to coin new Turkish words to express new concepts and technologies as they enter the language. Many of these new words, particularly information technology terms, have received widespread acceptance, however, the TDK is occasionally criticized for coining words which sound contrived and artificial. Some earlier changes—such as bölem to replace fırka, political party—also failed to meet with popular approval, some words restored from Old Turkic have taken on specialized meanings, for example betik is now used to mean script in computer science
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Culture of Turkey
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Many of these traditions were initially brought together by the Ottoman Empire, a multi-ethnic and multi-religious state. The present-day Republic of Turkey, which was declared in 1923 after the dissolution of the Ottoman Empire, is still a country that spans Europe. During the early years of the republic, the government invested an amount of resources into fine arts such as paintings. This was done as both a process of modernization and of creating a cultural identity, Turkish culture has undergone profound changes over the last century. Today, Turkey may be the country that contains every extreme of Eastern and Western culture. The Ottoman system was a state that enabled people within it not to mix with each other and thereby retain separate ethnic. Political, legal, religious, cultural, social, and economic changes were designed to convert the new Republic of Turkey into a secular. These changes were implemented under the leadership of Mustafa Kemal Atatürk, as a result, Turkey is one of the most westernized Islamic nations. The Book of Dede Korkut and the Epic of Köroğlu have been the main elements of the Turkish epic tradition in Anatolia for several centuries, the two primary streams of Ottoman literature were poetry and prose. Of the two, the Ottoman Divan poetry, a highly ritualized and symbolic art form, was the dominant stream, the vast majority of Divan poetry was lyric in nature, either ghazals or qasidas. There were, however, other genres, most particularly the mathnawi. The tradition of Ottoman prose was exclusively non-fictional in nature, as the tradition was limited to narrative poetry. The Tanzimat reforms of 1839–1876 brought changes to the language of Ottoman written literature, and introduced previously unknown Western genres, primarily the novel, Most of the roots of modern Turkish literature were formed between the years 1896 and 1923. Broadly, there were three primary literary movements during this period, the Edebiyyât-ı Cedîde movement, the Fecr-i Âtî movement, the Edebiyyât-ı Cedîde movement began with the founding in 1891 of the magazine Servet-i Fünûn, which was largely devoted to progress along the Western model. Accordingly, the magazines literary ventures, under the direction of the poet Tevfik Fikret, were geared towards creating a Western-style high art in Turkey, poetry is the most dominant form of literature in modern Turkey. The folk poetry as indicated above, was influenced by the Islamic Sunni. Furthermore, as evidenced by the prevalence of the still existent ashik tradition. Much of the poetry and song of the tradition, being almost exclusively oral until the 19th century
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Turanism
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It proclaimed the need for close cooperation or alliance between culturally, linguistically or ethnically related peoples of Inner Asian origin from Turkic peoples. He concluded that the Finns originated in Central Asia, and far from being a small, isolated people, they were part of a polity that included such peoples as the Magyars, Turks, Mongols. Like the term Aryan, Turanian is used chiefly as a linguistic term, although Turanism is a political movement for the union of all Uralo-Altaic peoples, there are different opinions about inclusiveness. In the opinion of the famous Turanist Ziya Gökalp, Turanism is for Turkic peoples only, so he narrowed Turanism into Pan-Turkism. The idea of the necessity of Turanian brotherhood/collaboration was borrowed from the Slavic brotherhood/collaboration idea of Panslavism, diverse though they are in culture, tradition, and even physical appearance, these peoples nevertheless possess certain well-marked traits in common. Their languages are all similar, and, what is of more import. Pan-Turanianism has its roots in the Finnish nationalist Fennophile and Fennoman movement, the concept spread from here to the kindred peoples of the Finns. Friedrich Max Müller, the German Orientalist and philologist, published and proposed a new grouping of the non-Aryan, in his work The Languages of the Seat of War in the East he called these languages Turanian. Müller divided this group into two subgroups, the Southern Division, and the Northern Division, in the long run, his theory proved unsound, but his Northern Division was renamed and re-classed as the Ural-Altaic languages. Turanism in Finland can be traced from the roots of Finnish linguist Matthias Castrén, however, due to Finlands isolation over Turanism, it is not common. Hungarian Turanism was a romantic nationalist cultural and political movement which was most lively in the half of the 19th century. It was based on the age old and still living tradition about the Asian origins of Magyars. This tradition was preserved in medieval chronicles as early as the 13th century and this tradition served as starting point for the scientific research of the ethnogenesis of Hungarian people, which began in the 18th century, in Hungary and abroad. Sándor Kőrösi Csoma traveled to Asia in the belief that he could find the kindred of Magyars in Turkestan. As a scientific movement, Turanism was concerned with the research of Asia and its culture in context of Hungarian history, the movement received impetus after Hungarys defeat in World War I. Under the terms of the Treaty of Trianon, the new Hungarian state constituted only 32. 7% of the territory of historic, pre-treaty Hungary, and lost 58. 4% of its total population. More than 3.2 million ethnic Hungarians – one-third of all Hungarians – resided outside the new boundaries of Hungary, in the successor states, old Hungarian cities of great cultural importance like Bratislava, Kassa, and Kolozsvár were lost. Under these circumstances no Hungarian government could survive without seeking justice for Magyars, reuniting the Magyars became a crucial point in public life and on the political agenda
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Turkic peoples
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The Turkic peoples are a collection of ethnic groups that live in central, eastern, northern, and western Asia as well as parts of eastern Europe. They speak languages belonging to the Turkic language family and they share, to varying degrees, certain cultural traits and historical backgrounds. The first known mention of the term Turk applied to a Turkic group was in reference to the Göktürks in the 6th century, a letter by Ishbara Qaghan to Emperor Wen of Sui in 585 described him as the Great Turk Khan. The Orhun inscriptions use the terms Turk and Turuk and this includes Chinese records Spring and Autumn Annals referring to a neighbouring people as Beidi. During the first century CE, Pomponius Mela refers to the Turcae in the north of the Sea of Azov. There are references to certain groups in antiquity whose names could be the form of Türk/Türük such as Togarma, Turukha/Turuška, Turukku. But the information gap is so substantial that we cannot firmly connect these ancient people to the modern Turks, turkologist András Róna-Tas posits that the term Turk could be rooted in the East Iranian Saka language or in Turkic. This etymological concept is related to Old Turkic word stems tür, türi-, törü. The earliest Turkic-speaking peoples identifiable in Chinese sources are the Dingling, Gekun, the Chinese Book of Zhou presents an etymology of the name Turk as derived from helmet, explaining that taken this name refers to the shape of the Altai Mountains. During the Middle Ages, various Turkic peoples of the Eurasian steppe were subsumed under the identity of the Scythians, between 400 CE and the 16th century, Byzantine sources use the name Σκύθαι in reference to twelve different Turkic peoples. However, the usage of the term is based on the linguistic classification in order to avoid any political sense. In short, the term Türki can be used for Türk or vice versa and it is generally agreed that the first Turkic people lived in a region extending from Central Asia to Siberia, with the majority of them living in China historically. Historically they were established after the 6th century BCE, the earliest separate Turkic peoples appeared on the peripheries of the late Xiongnu confederation about 200 BCE. Turkic people may be related to the Xiongnu, Dingling and Tiele people, according to the Book of Wei, the Tiele people were the remnants of the Chidi, the red Di people competing with the Jin in the Spring and Autumn period. Turkic tribes such as the Khazars and Pechenegs probably lived as nomads for many years before establishing the Turkic Khaganate or Göktürk Empire in the 6th century and these were herdsmen and nobles who were searching for new pastures and wealth. The first mention of Turks was in a Chinese text that mentioned trade between Turk tribes and the Sogdians along the Silk Road, the first recorded use of Turk as a political name appears as a 6th-century reference to the word pronounced in Modern Chinese as Tujue. The Ashina clan migrated from Li-jien to the Juan Juan seeking inclusion in their confederacy, the tribe were famed metalsmiths and were granted land near a mountain quarry which looked like a helmet, from which they were said to have gotten their name 突厥. A century later their power had increased such that they conquered the Juan Juan, Turkic peoples originally used their own alphabets, like Orkhon and Yenisey runiforms, and later the Uyghur alphabet
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Kurds
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The Kurds are culturally and linguistically closely related to the Iranian peoples and, as a result, are often themselves classified as an Iranian people. A recent Kurdish diaspora has also developed in Western countries, primarily in Germany, the Kurdish language refers collectively to the related dialects spoken by the Kurds. It is mainly spoken in parts of Iran, Iraq, Syria. Kurdish holds official status in Iraq as a national language alongside Arabic, is recognized in Iran as a regional language, the Kurdish languages belong to the northwestern sub‑group of the Iranian languages, which in turn belongs to the Indo-Iranian branch of the Indo-European family. According to Mackenzie, there are few features that all Kurdish dialects have in common. And the fact that this reflects the sense of ethnic identity and unity of the Kurds. The number of Kurds living in Southwest Asia is estimated at close to 30 million, Kurds comprise anywhere from 18% to 20% of the population in Turkey, possibly as high as 25%,15 to 20% in Iraq, 10% in Iran, and 9% in Syria. Kurds form regional majorities in all four of these countries, viz. in Turkish Kurdistan, the Kurds are the fourth largest ethnic group in West Asia after the Arabs, Persians, and Turks. The total number of Kurds in 1991 was placed at 22.5 million, with 48% of this number living in Turkey, 18% in Iraq, 24% in Iran, and 4% in Syria. Recent emigration accounts for a population of close to 1.5 million in Western countries and this groups population was estimated at close to 0.4 million in 1990. The land of Karda is mentioned on a Sumerian clay-tablet dated to the 3rd millennium B. C. This land was inhabited by the people of Su who dwelt in the regions of Lake Van. Other Sumerian clay-tables referred the people, who lived in the land of Karda, as the Qarduchi and the Qurti. Many Kurds consider themselves descended from the Medes, an ancient Iranian people, the claimed Median descent is reflected in the words of the Kurdish national anthem, We are the children of the Medes and Kai Khosrow. The Kurdish languages form a subgroup of the Northwestern Iranian languages like Median, some researchers consider the independent Kardouchoi as the ancestors of the Kurds. The term Kurd, however, is first encountered in Arabic sources of the seventh century, the Kurds have ethnically diverse origins. During the Sassanid era, in Kar-Namag i Ardashir i Pabagan, after initially sustaining a heavy defeat, Ardashir I was successful in subjugating the Kurds. In a letter Ardashir I received from his foe, Ardavan V, the usage of the term Kurd during this time period most likely was a social term, designating Northwestern Iranian nomads, rather than a concrete ethnic group
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Zazas
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The Zazas are a people in eastern Anatolia who natively speak the Zaza language. Their heartland, the Dersim region, consists of Tunceli, Bingöl provinces and parts of Elazığ, Erzincan, the majority of Zazas consider themselves ethnic Kurds, part of the Kurdish nation, and they are often described as Zaza Kurds. The exact number of Zazas is unknown, due to the absence of recent, the most recent official statistics concerning native language are available for the year 1965, where 147,707 chose Zaza as their native language in Turkey. It is also important to note that many Zazas only learned Kurdish, according to a KONDA survey from March 2007, Kurds and Zazas together comprise an estimated 13. 4% of the adult population and 15. 68% of the whole population in Turkey. Ludwig Paul also mentions that the point is the decisive factor for the question of the ethnic identity of Zaza speakers. A scientific report from 2005 concluded that Zazas are very similar to Kurds genetically, Zaza and Kurdish languageas belong to the Indo-European languages family. Linguistic studies shows that the Zazas may have immigrated to their homeland from the southern shores of the Caspian Sea. Some Zazas use the word Dimli to describe their ethnic identity, the word Dimli also describes a region of Gilan Province in today’s Iran. Some linguists connect the word Dimli with the Daylamites in the Alborz Mountains near the shores of the Caspian Sea in Iran, Zazaki probably originates from northern Iran, from the historical region Deylamān at the Caspic sea, in the present province of Gīlān. Today the Iranian languages still spoken there like Sangsarī, Māzandarānī, Tātī, Semnānī, apart from the presently in Balochistan spoken Balochi, only Gōrānī, which is spoken in a few remote areas in Iran and Mesopotamia, have relatively closer linguistic affinity with Zazaki. The first written statements in the Zaza language were compiled by the linguist Peter Lerch in 1850, two other important documents are the religious writings of Ehmedê Xasi of 1899, and of Usman Efendiyo Babıc, both of these works were written in the Arabic alphabet. The state owned TRT Kurdî airs shows on Zaza language, Kurds and Zazas have for centuries lived in the same areas in Anatolia. In the 1920s and 1930s, Zazas played a key role in the rise of Kurdish nationalism with their rebellions against the Ottoman Empire and later the Republic of Turkey. During the Sheikh Said rebellion in 1925, the Zaza Sheikh Said and his supporters rebelled against the newly established Turkey for their nationalist, in 1937 during the Dersim rebellion, Zazas once again rebelled against the Turks. This time the rebellion was led by Seyid Riza and ended with a massacre of thousands of Kurdish and Zaza civilians, Zazas also participated in the Kurdish Koçgiri rebellion in 1920. Sakine Cansız, a Zaza from Tunceli was a member of Kurdistan Workers Party. Other noticeable Zaza individuals in PKK are Besê Hozat and Mazlum Doğan, many Zaza politicians are also to be found in the fraternal Kurdish parties of HDP and DBP, like co-chairman of HDP Selahattin Demirtaş, Aysel Tuğluk, Ayla Akat Ata and Gültan Kışanak. On the other hand, some Zazas have publicly said they dont consider themselves Kurdish like Hüseyin Aygün, Zaza nationalism grew primarily in the diaspora, because of the more visible difference between Kurds and Zazas
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Arabs
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Arabs are an ethnic group inhabiting the Arab world. They primarily live in the Arab states in Western Asia, North Africa, the Horn of Africa, the Arabs are first mentioned in the mid-ninth century BCE as a tribal people dwelling in the central Arabian Peninsula. The Arabs appear to have been under the vassalage of the Neo-Assyrian Empire, tradition holds that Arabs descend from Ishmael, the son of Abraham. The Arabian Desert is the birthplace of Arab, there are other Arab groups as well that spread in the land and existed for millennia. Before the expansion of the Caliphate, Arab referred to any of the largely nomadic Semitic people from the northern to the central Arabian Peninsula and Syrian Desert. Presently, Arab refers to a number of people whose native regions form the Arab world due to spread of Arabs throughout the region during the early Arab conquests of the 7th and 8th centuries. The Arabs forged the Rashidun, Umayyad and the Abbasid caliphates, whose borders reached southern France in the west, China in the east, Anatolia in the north, and this was one of the largest land empires in history. The Great Arab Revolt has had as big an impact on the modern Middle East as the World War I, the war signaled the end of the Ottoman Empire. They are modern states and became significant as distinct political entities after the fall and defeat, following adoption of the Alexandria Protocol in 1944, the Arab League was founded on 22 March 1945. The Charter of the Arab League endorsed the principle of an Arab homeland whilst respecting the sovereignty of its member states. Beyond the boundaries of the League of Arab States, Arabs can also be found in the global diaspora, the ties that bind Arabs are ethnic, linguistic, cultural, historical, identical, nationalist, geographical and political. The Arabs have their own customs, language, architecture, art, literature, music, dance, media, cuisine, dress, society, sports, the total number of Arabs are an estimated 450 million. This makes them the second largest ethnic group after the Han Chinese. Arabs are a group in terms of religious affiliations and practices. In the pre-Islamic era, most Arabs followed polytheistic religions, some tribes had adopted Christianity or Judaism, and a few individuals, the hanifs, apparently observed monotheism. Today, Arabs are mainly adherents of Islam, with sizable Christian minorities, Arab Muslims primarily belong to the Sunni, Shiite, Ibadi, Alawite, Druze and Ismaili denominations. Arab Christians generally follow one of the Eastern Christian Churches, such as the Maronite, Coptic Orthodox, Greek Orthodox, Greek Catholic, or Chaldean churches. Listed among the booty captured by the army of king Shalmaneser III of Assyria in the Battle of Qarqar are 1000 camels of Gi-in-di-buu the ar-ba-a-a or Gindibu belonging to the Arab
26.
Persian Empire
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Persian Empire refers to any of a series of imperial dynasties centered in Persia. The first of these was the Achaemenid Empire established by Cyrus the Great in 550 BC with the conquest of Median, Lydian and Babylonian empires and it covered much of the Ancient world when it was conquered by Alexander the Great. Several later dynasties claimed to be heirs of the Achaemenids, Persia was then ruled by the Parthian Empire which supplanted the Hellenistic Seleucid Empire, and then by the Sassanian Empire which ruled up until mid 7th century. It is important to note that many of these empires referred to themselves as Persian, they were often ethnically ruled by Medes, Babylonians. Iranian dynastic history was interrupted by the Arab Muslim conquest of Persia in 651 AD, establishing the even larger Islamic Caliphate, the main religion of ancient Persia was the native Zoroastrianism, but after the seventh century, it was replaced by Islam. Since 1979 and the downfall of the Pahlavi dynasty during Iranian Revolution, Persia has had a Shiah theocratic government
27.
Armenians
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Armenians are an ethnic group native to the Armenian Highlands. Armenians constitute the population of Armenia and the de facto independent Nagorno-Karabakh Republic. There is a diaspora of around 5 million people of full or partial Armenian ancestry living outside of modern Armenia. The largest Armenian populations today exist in Russia, the United States, France, Georgia, Iran, Germany, Ukraine, Lebanon, Brazil and Syria. With the exceptions of Iran and the former Soviet states, the present-day Armenian diaspora was formed mainly as a result of the Armenian Genocide, most Armenians adhere to the Armenian Apostolic Church, a non-Chalcedonian church, which is also the worlds oldest national church. Christianity began to spread in Armenia soon after Jesus death, due to the efforts of two of his apostles, St. Thaddeus and St. Bartholomew, in the early 4th century, the Kingdom of Armenia became the first state to adopt Christianity as a state religion. The unique Armenian alphabet was invented in 405 AD by Mesrop Mashtots, historically, the name Armenian has come to internationally designate this group of people. It was first used by neighbouring countries of ancient Armenia, the earliest attestations of the exonym Armenia date around the 6th century BC. In his trilingual Behistun Inscription dated to 517 BC, Darius I the Great of Persia refers to Urashtu as Armina (in Old Persian, Armina and Harminuya. In Greek, Αρμένιοι Armenians is attested from about the same time, xenophon, a Greek general serving in some of the Persian expeditions, describes many aspects of Armenian village life and hospitality in around 401 BC. He relates that the people spoke a language that to his ear sounded like the language of the Persians and it is also further postulated that the name Hay comes from one of the two confederated, Hittite vassal states—the Ḫayaša-Azzi. Movses Khorenatsi, the important early medieval Armenian historian, wrote that the word Armenian originated from the name Armenak or Aram, the Armenian Highland lies in the highlands surrounding Mount Ararat, the highest peak of the region. In the Bronze Age, several states flourished in the area of Greater Armenia, including the Hittite Empire, Mitanni, soon after Hayasa-Azzi were Arme-Shupria, the Nairi and the Kingdom of Urartu, who successively established their sovereignty over the Armenian Highland. Each of the nations and tribes participated in the ethnogenesis of the Armenian people. Under Ashurbanipal, the Assyrian empire reached the Caucasus Mountains, yerevan, the modern capital of Armenia, was founded in 782 BC by king Argishti I. T. Gamkrelidze and V. Ivanov proposed the Indo-European homeland around the Armenian Highland, eric P. Hamp in his 2012 Indo-European family tree, groups the Armenian language along with Greek and Ancient Macedonian in the Pontic Indo-European subgroup. In Hamps view the homeland of this subgroup is the northeast coast of the Black Sea and he assumes that they migrated from there southeast through the Caucasus with the Armenians remaining after Batumi while the pre-Greeks proceeded westwards along the southern coast of the Black Sea. However, fresh genetics studies explain Armenian diversity by several mixtures of Eurasian populations that occurred between ~3,000 and ~2,000 b. c
28.
Committee of Union and Progress
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It was transformed into a political organisation by Behaeddin Shakir, aligning itself with the Young Turks in 1906, during the period of the dissolution of the Ottoman Empire. In the west, members of the CUP were usually called Young Turks while in the Ottoman Empire, begun as a liberal reform movement in the Ottoman Empire, the party was persecuted by the Ottoman imperial government for its calls for democratisation and reform in the empire. A major influence on the committee was Meiji-era Japan, a state that successfully modernised itself without sacrificing its identity. The CUP intended to copy the Japanese example and modernise the Ottoman Empire to end its status as the sick man of Europe. The ultimate aim of the CUP was to return the Ottoman Empire to its status as one of the world’s great powers. At the end of World War I, most of its members were court-martialled by the sultan Mehmed VI, a few members of the organisation were executed in Turkey after trial for the attempted assassination of Mustafa Kemal Atatürk in 1926. Members who survived continued their careers in Turkey as members of the Republican People’s Party. The Committee of Union and Progress was a name for different underground factions. The name was sanctioned to a specific group in 1906 by Behaeddin Shakir. The organisation was based upon the revolutionary Italian Carbonari, in 1902, there occurred a party congress in Paris, in which two factions clashed. Ultimately, Prince Sabahaddin and his followers ended leaving the CUP over disagreements over what sort of state the empire should be after the revolution against Sultan Abdulhamid. To the CUP, for science was something of a religion. Alongside the unbounded faith in science, the CUP embraced social Darwinism, the French racist Arthur de Gobineau whose theories had such a profound impact upon the German völkisch thinkers in the 19th century was also a major influence upon the CUP. All that mattered in the end to the CUP was that the Ottoman Empire become great again, and that the Turks be the dominant group within the empire. A further problem for the CUP was that the majority of the ethnic Turks of the empire did not see themselves as Turks at all, the CUP had built an extensive organisation, having a presence in towns, in the capital, and throughout Europe. Joining the CUP was by only, and those who did join had to keep their membership secret. The penalty for disobeying orders from the Central Committee or attempting to leave the CUP was death, operating as an underground revolutionary group led the CUP to adopt a paranoid mindset with almost everyone outside of the CUP being seen as an enemy. During the early years of the 20th century, and especially from 1906 onwards, the Ottoman region of Macedonia comprised what is now modern northern Greece, Macedonia, southern Serbia, south-western Bulgaria, Kosovo, and Albania
29.
Constantinople
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Constantinople was the capital city of the Roman/Byzantine Empire, and also of the brief Latin, and the later Ottoman empires. It was reinaugurated in 324 AD from ancient Byzantium as the new capital of the Roman Empire by Emperor Constantine the Great, after whom it was named, Constantinople was famed for its massive and complex defences. The first wall of the city was erected by Constantine I, Constantinople never truly recovered from the devastation of the Fourth Crusade and the decades of misrule by the Latins. The origins of the name of Byzantion, more known by the later Latin Byzantium, are not entirely clear. The founding myth of the city has it told that the settlement was named after the leader of the Megarian colonists, Byzas. The later Byzantines of Constantinople themselves would maintain that the city was named in honour of two men, Byzas and Antes, though this was likely just a play on the word Byzantion. During this time, the city was also called Second Rome, Eastern Rome, and Roma Constantinopolitana. As the city became the remaining capital of the Roman Empire after the fall of the West, and its wealth, population, and influence grew. In the language of other peoples, Constantinople was referred to just as reverently, the medieval Vikings, who had contacts with the empire through their expansion in eastern Europe used the Old Norse name Miklagarðr, and later Miklagard and Miklagarth. In Arabic, the city was sometimes called Rūmiyyat al-kubra and in Persian as Takht-e Rum, in East and South Slavic languages, including in medieval Russia, Constantinople was referred to as Tsargrad or Carigrad, City of the Caesar, from the Slavonic words tsar and grad. This was presumably a calque on a Greek phrase such as Βασιλέως Πόλις, the modern Turkish name for the city, İstanbul, derives from the Greek phrase eis tin polin, meaning into the city or to the city. In 1928, the Turkish alphabet was changed from Arabic script to Latin script, in time the city came to be known as Istanbul and its variations in most world languages. In Greece today, the city is still called Konstantinoúpolis/Konstantinoúpoli or simply just the City, apart from this, little is known about this initial settlement, except that it was abandoned by the time the Megarian colonists settled the site anew. A farsighted treaty with the emergent power of Rome in c.150 BC which stipulated tribute in exchange for independent status allowed it to enter Roman rule unscathed. The site lay astride the land route from Europe to Asia and the seaway from the Black Sea to the Mediterranean, and had in the Golden Horn an excellent and spacious harbour. He would later rebuild Byzantium towards the end of his reign, in which it would be briefly renamed Augusta Antonina, fortifying it with a new city wall in his name, Constantine had altogether more colourful plans. Rome was too far from the frontiers, and hence from the armies and the imperial courts, yet it had been the capital of the state for over a thousand years, and it might have seemed unthinkable to suggest that the capital be moved to a different location. Constantinople was built over 6 years, and consecrated on 11 May 330, Constantine divided the expanded city, like Rome, into 14 regions, and ornamented it with public works worthy of an imperial metropolis
30.
Abdul Hamid II
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Abdul Hamid II was the 34th Sultan of the Ottoman Empire and the last Sultan to exert effective autocratic control over the fracturing state. Abdul Hamids 1909 removal from the throne was hailed by most Ottoman citizens, the most far-reaching of these reforms were in education, professional schools were established. The University of Istanbul, although shut down by Abdul Hamid himself in 1881, was reopened in 1900, and a network of secondary, primary, Railway and telegraph systems were developed by primarily German firms. Between 1871 and 1908, the Sublime Porte thus reached a new degree of organizational elaboration and articulation. Abroad, Abdul Hamid was nicknamed the Red Sultan or Abdul the Damned due to the massacres committed against minorities during his rule and use of a police to silence dissent. These led to an attempt in 1905, contributing to the sultans worsening paranoia until his eventual removal from the throne. Abdul Hamid II was born at the Topkapı Palace in Istanbul and he was the son of Sultan Abdülmecid and Tirimüjgan Kadınefendi, originally named Virjin. After the death of his mother, he became the adoptive son of his fathers wife. He was a carpenter and personally crafted some high quality furniture. Abdul Hamid II was also interested in opera and personally wrote the first-ever Turkish translations of many opera classics and he ascended to the throne following the deposition of his brother Murad on 31 August 1876. At his accession, some commentators were impressed by the fact that he rode practically unattended to the Eyüp Sultan Mosque where he was given the Sword of Osman. Most people expected Abdul Hamid II to have ideas. In any event, like many other reforms of the Ottoman Empire change proved to be nearly impossible. Russia continued to mobilize for war, however, everything changed when the British fleet approached the capital from the Sea of Marmara. Early in 1877 the Ottoman Empire went to war with the Russian Empire, Abdul Hamids biggest fear, near dissolution, was realised with the Russian declaration of war on 24 April 1877. In that conflict, the Ottoman Empire fought without help from European allies, Russian chancellor Prince Gorchakov had effectively purchased Austrian neutrality with the Reichstadt Agreement. The Russian victory was quickly realised, the conflict ended in February 1878. After the war with Russia, Abdulhamid suspended the constitution in February 1878, for the next three decades, the Ottoman Empire was ruled by Abdulhamid from Yıldız Palace
31.
Decline and modernization of the Ottoman Empire
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Beginning from the late eighteenth century, the Ottoman Empire faced challenges defending itself against foreign invasion and occupation. Over the course of the century, the Ottoman state became increasingly powerful and rationalized. At the end of period, marked with 1908, to a degree the Ottoman military became modernized and professionalized according to the model of Western European Armies. The period was followed by defeat and dissolution of the Ottoman Empire, the rise of nationalism swept through many countries during the 19th century, and it affected territories within the Ottoman Empire. A burgeoning national consciousness, together with a sense of ethnic nationalism. The empire was forced to deal with nationalism both within and beyond its borders. The number of revolutionary, secret societies which turned into political parties during the period rose dramatically. Uprisings in Ottoman territory had many far-reaching consequences during the 19th century, many Ottoman ruling elite questioned whether the policies of the state were to blame, some felt that the sources of ethnic conflict were external, and unrelated to issues of governance. While this era was not without some successes, the ability of the Ottoman state to have any effect on ethnic uprisings was seriously called into question, at the end of the century from Russian perspective, Romania, Serbia and Montenegro and autonomy of Bulgaria was achieved. After the Congress of Berlin the Russian expansion was controlled through stopping the expansion of Bulgaria, the Russian public felt that at the end of Congress of Berlin thousands of Russian soldiers had died for nothing. The military of the Ottoman Empire remained an effective fighting force until the half of the eighteenth century. Selim III came to the throne with an effort in military reforms in 1789. Selim III was replaced by Mahmud II in 1808 who established martial law of Alemdar Mustafa Pasha and his first task was to ally with the Janissaries in order to break the power of the provincial governors. He then turned on the Janissaries and removed them from power during Auspicious Incident in 1826, efforts for a new system began following the Auspicious incident. The stagnation and reform of the Ottoman Empire ended with the dismemberment of Ottoman Classical Army, the issue during the decline and modernization of the Ottoman Empire was to create a military that could win wars and bring security to its subjects. That goal took multiple Sultans with multiple reorganizations during this period, at the end of this period, with the Second Constitutional Era in 1908, -with a degree of- Ottoman military became modernized and professionalized in the form of European Armies. Mahmud II had to deal with multiple issues inherited from generations past and these issues lasted all through his reign. Shortly, the Eastern Question with Russia, England, and France, Mahmud understood the growing problems of the state and the approaching overthrow of the monarchy, and began to deal with the problems as he saw them
32.
Friedrich Nietzsche
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He began his career as a classical philologist before turning to philosophy. He became the youngest ever to hold the Chair of Classical Philology at the University of Basel in 1869, Nietzsche resigned in 1879 due to health problems that plagued him most of his life, and he completed much of his core writing in the following decade. In 1889, at age 44, he suffered a collapse and he lived his remaining years in the care of his mother, and then with his sister Elisabeth Förster-Nietzsche, and died in 1900. Nietzsches body of work touched widely on art, philology, history, religion, tragedy, culture, and science, and drew inspiration from figures such as Schopenhauer, Wagner. His writing spans philosophical polemics, poetry, cultural criticism, and fiction while displaying a fondness for aphorism, born on 15 October 1844, Nietzsche grew up in the small town of Röcken, near Leipzig, in the Prussian Province of Saxony. He was named after King Frederick William IV of Prussia, who turned forty-nine on the day of Nietzsches birth, Nietzsches parents, Carl Ludwig Nietzsche, a Lutheran pastor and former teacher, and Franziska Oehler, married in 1843, the year before their sons birth. They had two children, a daughter, Elisabeth Förster-Nietzsche, born in 1846, and a second son, Ludwig Joseph. Nietzsches father died from an ailment in 1849, Ludwig Joseph died six months later. The family then moved to Naumburg, where they lived with Nietzsches maternal grandmother, after the death of Nietzsches grandmother in 1856, the family moved into their own house, now Nietzsche-Haus, a museum and Nietzsche study centre. Nietzsche attended a school and then, later, a private school, where he became friends with Gustav Krug, Rudolf Wagner. In 1854, he began to attend Domgymnasium in Naumburg, because his father had worked for the state the now-fatherless Nietzsche was offered a scholarship to study at the internationally recognized Schulpforta. He transferred and studied there from 1858 to 1864, becoming friends with Paul Deussen and he also found time to work on poems and musical compositions. Nietzsche led Germania, a music and literature club, during his summers in Naumburg. His end-of-semester exams in March 1864 showed a 1 in Religion and German, a 2a in Greek and Latin, a 2b in French, History, and Physics, while at Pforta, Nietzsche had a penchant for pursuing subjects that were considered unbecoming. The teacher who corrected the essay gave it a mark but commented that Nietzsche should concern himself in the future with healthier, more lucid. After graduation in September 1864, Nietzsche commenced studies in theology, for a short time he and Deussen became members of the Burschenschaft Frankonia. After one semester, he stopped his studies and lost his faith. In June 1865, at the age of 20, Nietzsche wrote to his sister Elisabeth, who was deeply religious, a letter regarding his loss of faith
33.
Japan
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Japan is a sovereign island nation in Eastern Asia. Located in the Pacific Ocean, it lies off the eastern coast of the Asia Mainland and stretches from the Sea of Okhotsk in the north to the East China Sea, the kanji that make up Japans name mean sun origin. 日 can be read as ni and means sun while 本 can be read as hon, or pon, Japan is often referred to by the famous epithet Land of the Rising Sun in reference to its Japanese name. Japan is an archipelago consisting of about 6,852 islands. The four largest are Honshu, Hokkaido, Kyushu and Shikoku, the country is divided into 47 prefectures in eight regions. Hokkaido being the northernmost prefecture and Okinawa being the southernmost one, the population of 127 million is the worlds tenth largest. Japanese people make up 98. 5% of Japans total population, approximately 9.1 million people live in the city of Tokyo, the capital of Japan. Archaeological research indicates that Japan was inhabited as early as the Upper Paleolithic period, the first written mention of Japan is in Chinese history texts from the 1st century AD. Influence from other regions, mainly China, followed by periods of isolation, from the 12th century until 1868, Japan was ruled by successive feudal military shoguns who ruled in the name of the Emperor. Japan entered into a period of isolation in the early 17th century. The Second Sino-Japanese War of 1937 expanded into part of World War II in 1941, which came to an end in 1945 following the bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki. Japan is a member of the UN, the OECD, the G7, the G8, the country has the worlds third-largest economy by nominal GDP and the worlds fourth-largest economy by purchasing power parity. It is also the worlds fourth-largest exporter and fourth-largest importer, although Japan has officially renounced its right to declare war, it maintains a modern military with the worlds eighth-largest military budget, used for self-defense and peacekeeping roles. Japan is a country with a very high standard of living. Its population enjoys the highest life expectancy and the third lowest infant mortality rate in the world, in ancient China, Japan was called Wo 倭. It was mentioned in the third century Chinese historical text Records of the Three Kingdoms in the section for the Wei kingdom, Wa became disliked because it has the connotation of the character 矮, meaning dwarf. The 倭 kanji has been replaced with the homophone Wa, meaning harmony, the Japanese word for Japan is 日本, which is pronounced Nippon or Nihon and literally means the origin of the sun. The earliest record of the name Nihon appears in the Chinese historical records of the Tang dynasty, at the start of the seventh century, a delegation from Japan introduced their country as Nihon
34.
Corporatism
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It is theoretically based on the interpretation of a community as an organic body. The term corporatism is based on the Latin root word corpus meaning body, in 1881, Pope Leo XIII commissioned theologians and social thinkers to study corporatism and provide a definition for it. Corporatism is related to the concept of structural functionalism. Corporate social interaction is common within kinship groups such as families, clans, in addition to humans, certain animal species like penguins exhibit strong corporate social organization. Corporatist types of community and social interaction are common to many ideologies, Corporatism may also refer to economic tripartism involving negotiations between business, labour, and state interest groups to establish economic policy. This is sometimes referred to as neo-corporatism and is associated with social democracy. Kinship-based corporatism emphasizing clan, ethnic, and family identification has been a phenomenon in Africa, Asia. Confucian societies based upon families and clans in East Asia and Southeast Asia have been considered types of corporatism, China has strong elements of clan corporatism in its society involving legal norms concerning family relations. Islamic societies often feature strong clans which form the basis for a community-based corporatist society, in Italy, various function-based groups and institutions were created, including universities, guilds for artisans and craftspeople, and other professional associations. Some Catholic corporatist states include Austria under the leadership of Federal Chancellor Engelbert Dollfuss, in response to the Roman Catholic corporatism of the 1890s, Protestant corporatism was developed, especially in Germany, the Netherlands, and Scandinavia. However, Protestant corporatism has been less successful in obtaining assistance from governments than its Roman Catholic counterpart. In social psychology and biology, researchers have found the presence of corporate social organization amongst animal species. Research has shown that penguins are known to reside in densely populated corporate breeding colonies, ancient Greece developed early concepts of corporatism. Aristotle in Politics also described society as being divided along natural classes and functional purposes that were priests, rulers, slaves, after the French Revolution, the existing absolutist corporatist system was abolished due to its endorsement of social hierarchy and special corporate privilege for the Roman Catholic Church. The new French government considered corporatisms emphasis on group rights as inconsistent with the promotion of individual rights. Subsequently corporatist systems and corporate privilege throughout Europe were abolished in response to the French Revolution, from 1789 to the 1850s, most supporters of corporatism were reactionaries. A number of reactionary corporatists favoured corporatism in order to end liberal capitalism, from the 1850s onward progressive corporatism developed in response to classical liberalism and Marxism. These corporatists supported providing group rights to members of the middle classes and this was in opposition to the Marxist conception of class conflict
35.
Armenian Genocide
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Driven forward by military escorts, the deportees were deprived of food and water and subjected to periodic robbery, rape, and massacre. Most Armenian diaspora communities around the world came into being as a result of the genocide. Raphael Lemkin was explicitly moved by the Armenian annihilation to define systematic and premeditated exterminations within legal parameters, Turkey, the successor state of the Ottoman Empire, denies the word genocide as an accurate term for the mass killings of Armenians that began under Ottoman rule in 1915. It has in recent years been faced with repeated calls to them as genocide. To date,29 countries have recognized the mass killings as genocide, as have most genocide scholars. The western portion of historical Armenia, known as Western Armenia, had come under Ottoman rule following the Peace of Amasya, henceforth, the region was also alternatively referred to as Turkish Armenia or Ottoman Armenia. The Armenian community was made up of three denominations, Armenian Catholic, Armenian Protestant, and Armenian Apostolic, the religion of a vast majority of Armenians. Through the millet system, the Armenian community were allowed to rule themselves under their own system of governance with fairly little interference from the Ottoman government, Ottoman census figures clash with the statistics collected by the Armenian Patriarchate. According to the latter, there were almost three million Armenians living in the empire in 1878, in the Ottoman Empire, in accordance with the dhimmi system implemented in Muslim countries, they, like all other Christians and also Jews, were accorded certain freedoms. The dhimmi system in the Ottoman Empire was largely based upon the Pact of Umar, while the Pact of Umar prohibited non-Muslims from building new places of worship, it was not enforced in all regions of the Ottoman Empire. Since there were no laws concerning religious ghettos, the prohibition of non-Muslims building new places of worship led to their clustering around existing ones and it did not mean religious persecution, it meant unutterable contempt. They were dogs and pigs, and their nature was to be Christians, to be spat upon, if their shadow darkened a Turk, to be outraged, in addition to other legal limitations, Christians were not considered equals to Muslims and several prohibitions were placed on them. They were forbidden to carry weapons or ride horses and camels. Their houses could not overlook those of Muslims, and their religious practices were severely circumscribed, from 1839 to the declaration of a constitution in 1876, the Ottoman government instituted the Tanzimat, a series of reforms designed to improve the status of minorities. Nevertheless, most of the reforms were never implemented because the empires Muslim population rejected the principle of equality for Christians. By the late 1870s, the Greeks, along several other Christian nations in the Balkans, frustrated with their conditions, had, often with the help of the great powers. The Armenians remained, by and large, passive during these years, in the mid-1860s and early 1870s this passivity gave way to new currents of thinking in Armenian society. The Ottoman government considered these grievances and promised to punish those responsible, under growing pressure, the government of Sultan Abdul Hamid II declared itself a constitutional monarchy with a parliament and entered into negotiations with the powers
36.
Bilkent University
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Bilkent University, or Bilkent, is the first private university of Turkey, located in Ankara, with the fundamental aim of creating a center of excellence in higher education and research. The name Bilkent exemplifies this aim, since it is an acronym of bilim kenti, west of the center of Ankara, and covers an area of more than 5000 acres. University consists of three campuses all next to each other, east campus has English preparation schools, some dormitories, CTIS, THM departments and middle campus has lodgings and FMPA, and the rest is Main campus. The university library has a collection of books with annual acquisitions valued at over 3 million U. S. dollars. Today, Bilkent University Library is the largest university library of Turkey, in addition to books, the collection includes periodical subscriptions, microforms, CD-ROMS, access to numerous online databases and electronic journals, DVD videos and audio/video cassettes. Music scores and sound recordings are available in the music rooms, various open private collections and an exhibition hall also take place in the library. Bilkent University Library is opening its doors to the students and faculty of the other universities, the computer automation system made for the use of Bilkent University Library is now being used by many other Turkish university libraries, again by permission of Bilkent University. Students can participate in sports courses and be trained by university staff. The university presents many individuals and teams in different sports in varsity competitions, the two most famous sport teams of the university are Bilkent Goats and Bilkent Judges, the ultimate team and the football team, respectively. Bilkent University claims to be a leader in music and performing arts in Turkey, the university also sponsors frequent lectures, art exhibitions, and literary evenings throughout the academic year. The board, and the members of the Bilkent Student Union are annually chosen among the students by the entire registered students of that academic year. Student Union is the sponsor and the organizer of the Mayfest. The student clubs organize regular activities every day in the campus, all students are allowed to join, or participate in the events and activities of any club they wish to. The business school has been ranked by Eduniversal among the best business schools of the Eurasia region for international influence, according to the QS - Top Universities Rankings of 2012 and 2013 the university lies on 151-200th rank in terms of Economics & Econometrics
37.
Sufism
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Sufism or Taṣawwuf, which is often defined as Islamic mysticism, the inward dimension of Islam, or the phenomenon of mysticism within Islam, is a mystical trend in Islam characterized. These orders meet for sessions in meeting places known as zawiyas, khanqahs. They strive for ihsan as detailed in a hadith, Ihsan is to worship Allah as if you see Him, if you cant see Him, Rumi stated, The Sufi is hanging on to Muhammad, like Abu Bakr. Sufis regard Muhammad as al-Insān al-Kāmil, the perfect man who exemplifies the morality of God. The orders largely follow one of the four madhhabs of Sunni Islam, classical Sufis were characterized by their asceticism, especially by their attachment to dhikr, the practice of repeating the names of God, often performed after prayers. According to William Chittick, In a broad sense, Sufism can be described as the interiorization, historically, Muslims have used the Arabic word taṣawwuf to identify the practice of Sufis. In this view, it is necessary to be a Muslim to be a true Sufi. However, Islamic scholars themselves are not by any means in agreement about the meaning of the word sufi, Sufis themselves claim that Tasawwuf is an aspect of Islam similar to Sharia, inseparable from Islam and an integral part of Islamic belief and practice. Classical Sufi scholars have defined Tasawwuf as a science whose objective is the reparation of the heart and turning it away from all else, two origins of the word sufi have been suggested. Commonly, the root of the word is traced to ṣafā. Another origin is ṣūf, wool in Arabic, referring to the simple cloaks the early Muslim ascetics wore, the two were combined by the Sufi al-Rudhabari, who said, The Sufi is the one who wears wool on top of purity. Scholars generally agree that ṣūf or wool is probably the word of Sufi. This term was given to them because they wore woollen garments, the term labisal-suf meant he clad himself in wool and applied to a person who renounced the world and became an ascetic. Others have suggested that the word comes from the term ahl aṣ-ṣuffah and these men and women who sat at al-Masjid an-Nabawi are considered by some to be the first Sufis. Al-Qushayri and Ibn Khaldun both rejected all other than ṣūf on linguistic grounds. Sufi orders are based on the bayah that was given to the Prophet Muhammad by his Sahaba, by pledging allegiance to the Prophet Muhammad, the Sahaba had committed themselves to the service of God. According to Islamic belief, by pledging allegiance to Prophet Muhammad and it is through the Prophet Muhammad that Sufis aim to learn about, understand and connect with God. Such a concept may be understood by the hadith, which Sufis regard to be authentic, in which Prophet Muhammad said, I am the city of knowledge, eminent Sufis such as Ali Hujwiri refer to Ali as having a very high ranking in Tasawwuf
38.
Naqshbandi
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The Naqshbandi or Naqshbandiyah is a major Sunni spiritual order of Sufism. It was founded by Baha-ud-Din Naqshband Bukhari and traces its lineage to the Islamic prophet Muhammad, through Abu Bakr. Some Naqshbandi masters trace their lineage through Ali, His son-in-law, according to Carl W. Ernst, Within the Sufi tradition, the formation of the orders did not immediately produce lineages of master and disciple. There are few examples before the century of complete lineages going back to the Prophet Muhammad. Yet the symbolic importance of these lineages was immense, they provided a channel to divine authority through master-disciple chains and it was through such chains of masters and disciples that spiritual power and blessings were transmitted to both general and special devotees. Such spiritual transmission from a line of masters is one criterion that distinguishes a true or ‘connected’ Sufi path. These practices only “warm the heart” but none meets Sufism’s condition that a Sufi master must have a clear authorization connecting him with Muhammad, without such publicly verifiable authorizations, the Sufi path would be compromised by the whims of the people. The chain of transmission is not tied to a country, family or political appointment. It is also considered that the appointed sheikhs will be in communication with past sheikhs. All are joined by their common spiritual allegiance to the master of spiritual lineages and it was later associated with Baha-ud-Din Naqshband Bukhari in the 14th century, hence the name of the order. The name can be interpreted as engraver, pattern maker, reformer of patterns, image maker, the way is sometimes referred to as the sublime sufi path and the way of the golden chain. The paths name has changed over the years, afterwards, a branch or sub-order name was added. It is referred to as the Naqshbandi-Haqqani way, according to some estimates there are over sixty million disciples, and centres in almost every country of the world. It also had the largest internet presence and it is most active in Indonesia, Malaysia, Sri Lanka and Pakistan. As well as being the most prevalent Sufi Order in the west, the Prince of Malaysia, Raja Ashman Shah was a disciples of this order. The Naqshbandiyya order became a factor in Indo-Muslim life and for two centuries it was the principal spiritual order in India. Baqi Billah Berang is credited for bringing the order to India during the end of the 16th century and he was born in Kabul and brought up and educated in Kabul and Samarqand, where he came in contact with the Naqshbandiyya order through Hazrat Khawaja Amkangi. When he came to India, he tried to spread his knowledge about the order, among his disciples were Sheikh Ahmad Sirhindi and Sheikh Abdul Haq of Delhi
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Ibn 'Arabi
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He is renowned by practitioners of Sufism as the greatest master and also as a genuine saint. Abū Abdullāh Muḥammad ibn Alī ibn Muḥammad ibn Arabī was born in Murcia, Taifa of Murcia on Monday and he went by the names al-Shaykh al-Akbar and Muḥyiddin ibn Arabi. He was also known as Shaikh-e-Akbar Mohi-ud-Din Ibn-e-Arabi in the Subcontinent and his father, ‘Ali ibn Muḥammad, served in the Army of Abu ʿAbd Allah. When Abu ʿAbd Allah died in 1172 AD, ‘Ali ibn Muḥammad swiftly shifted his allegiance to the Almohad Sultan, Abū Ya’qūb Yūsuf I and his family then relocated from Murcia to Seville. His fathers family claimed descent from the legendary Arabian poet Hatim al-Tai and his mother came from a noble Berber family with strong ties to northern Africa. Ibn ‘Arabī’s intellectual training began in Seville in 578 AH, most of his teachers were the clergy of the Almohad era and some of them held the official posts of Qadi or Khatib. His spiritual mentor in Fes was Mohammed ibn Qasim al-Tamimi, in the year 597 AH, he was in Morocco and took his final leave from his master Yūsuf al-Kūmī, who was living in the village of Salé at that time. Ibn Arabi undertook Hajj in 598 AH and he lived in Mecca for three years. It was in Mecca that he started writing his work Al-Futūḥāt al-Makkiyya, after spending time in Mecca, he traveled throughout Syria, Palestine, Iraq and Anatolia. The year 600 AH witnessed a meeting between Ibn Arabi and Shaykh Majduddīn Isḥāq ibn Yūsuf, a native of Malatya and a man of standing at the Seljuk court. This time Ibn ‘Arabī was travelling north, first they visited Medina and this visit besides other benefits offered him a chance to meet the direct disciples of Shaykh ‘Abd al-Qādir Jīlānī. Ibn Arabi stayed there only for 12 days because he wanted to visit Mosul to see his friend ‘Alī ibn ‘Abdallāh ibn Jāmi’, a disciple of Qaḍīb al-Bān. There he spent the month of Ramaḍan and composed Tanazzulāt al-Mawṣiliyya, Kitāb al-Jalāl wa’l-Jamāl and Kunh mā lā Budda lil-MurīdMinhu In the year 602 AH he visited Jerusalem, Mecca and it was his first time that he passed through Syria, visiting Aleppo and Damascus. Later in 604 AH he returned to Mecca where he continued to study and write, spending his time with his friend Abū Shujā bin Rustem and family, including the beautiful Niẓām. The next 4 to 5 years of Ibn ‘Arabī’s life were spent in these lands, on 22 Rabī‘ al-Thānī638 AH at the age of seventy-five, Ibn ‘Arabī died in Damascus. Al-Insān al-Kāmil or the perfect being was first deeply discussed in written form by Ibn Arabi in one of his most prolific works entitled Fusus al-Hikam. Taking an idea already common within Sufi culture, Ibn al-Arabi applied deep analysis and reflection on the issue of the Perfect Human, in developing his explanation of the perfect being al-Arabi first discusses the issue of oneness through the metaphor of the mirror. In this metaphor al-Arabi compares an object being reflected in countless mirrors to the relationship between God and his creatures, God’s essence is seen in the existent human being, as God is the object and humans being the mirrors
