1.
Safran
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Safran S. A. is a French multinational aircraft engine, rocket engine, aerospace-component, defense, and security company. It was formed by a merger between the aircraft and rocket engine manufacturer and aerospace component manufacturer group SNECMA and the security company SAGEM in 2005 and its headquarters are located in Paris. The company is a component of the Euro Stoxx 50 stock market index, the name Safran was chosen from 4,250 suggestions. As a holding company for many subsidiaries the name was deemed suitable for the suggestion of direction, movement, Safran translates as rudder blade and as saffron, which the company highlights as one of the catalysts for early international trade. In 1905 Louis Seguin created the company Gnome, production of the first rotary engine for airplanes, the Gnome Omega, started in 1909. This company merged with the Le Rhône, a company created in 1912 by Louis Verdet, Gnome & Rhône was nationalized in 1945, creating Snecma. In 2000, this gave its name to the “Snecma Group”. Sagem was created in 1924 by Marcel Môme, in 1939, Sagem entered the telephone and transmissions market by taking control of Société anonyme des télécommunications. It acquired Société de Fabrication d’Instruments de Mesure, a measurement instrument specialist, however, by 2008 Sagem Mobile and Sagem Communications had been sold. Sagem Mobile became Sagem Wireless in January 2009, the Safran Group was created on May 11,2005, with the merger of Snecma and Sagem SA. In June 2014, Arianespace CEO Stephane Israel announced that European efforts to remain competitive in response to SpaceXs recent success have begun in earnest and this included the creation of a new joint venture company from Arianespaces two largest shareholders, the launch-vehicle producer Airbus Group and engine-producer Safran. By May 2015, Safran had created a division as well called Airbus Safran Launchers. This entity is currently developing the Ariane 6 launch vehicle for initial flights in the 2020s
2.
Ticker symbol
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A ticker symbol or stock symbol is an abbreviation used to uniquely identify publicly traded shares of a particular stock on a particular stock market. A stock symbol may consist of letters, numbers or a combination of both, ticker symbol refers to the symbols that were printed on the ticker tape of a ticker tape machine. Stock symbols are unique identifiers assigned to each security traded on a particular market, for example, AAPL is for Apple Inc. OODH is for Orion DHC, Inc. and HD is for Home Depot, a stock symbol can consist of letters, numbers, or a combination of both, and is a way to uniquely identify that stock. The symbols were kept as short as possible to reduce the number of characters that had to be printed on the ticker tape, the allocation of symbols and formatting convention is specific to each stock exchange. In the US, for example, stock tickers are typically between 1 and 4 letters and represent the name where possible. In Europe, most exchanges use three-letter codes, for example Dutch consumer goods company Unilever traded on the Amsterdam Euronext exchange has the symbol UNA, while in Asia, numbers are often used as stock tickers to avoid issues for international investors when using non-Latin scripts. For example, the bank HSBCs stock traded on the Hong Kong Stock Exchange has the ticker symbol 0005, symbols sometimes change to reflect mergers. Prior to the 1999 merger with Mobil Oil, Exxon used a spelling of the company XON as its ticker symbol. The symbol of the firm after the merger was XOM, symbols are sometimes reused, in the US the single-letter symbols are particularly sought after as vanity symbols. For example, since Mar 2008 Visa Inc. has used the symbol V that had previously used by Vivendi which had delisted. To fully qualify a stock, both the ticker and the exchange or country of listing needs to be known, on many systems both must be specified to uniquely identify the security. This is often done by appending the location or exchange code to the ticker, although stock tickers identify a security, they are exchange dependent, generally limited to stocks and can change. These limitations have led to the development of other codes in financial markets to identify securities for settlement purposes, the most prevalent of these is the International Securities Identifying Number. An ISIN uniquely identifies a security and its structure is defined in ISO6166, Securities for which ISINs are issued include bonds, commercial paper, stocks, and warrants. The ISIN identifies the security, not the exchange on which it trades, for instance, Daimler AG stock trades on twenty-two different stock exchanges worldwide, and is priced in five different currencies, it has the same ISIN on each, though not the same ticker symbol. ISIN cannot specify a particular trade in this case, and another identifier, following the introduction of the Sequence trading platform in 1996, EPICs were renamed Tradable Instrument Display Mnemonics, but they are still widely referred to as EPICs. Stocks can also be identified using their SEDOL number or their ISIN, in the United States, modern letter-only ticker symbols were developed by Standard & Poors to bring a national standard to investing
3.
Euronext
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Euronext NV is a European stock exchange seated in Amsterdam, Brussels, London, Lisbon and Paris. In addition to cash and derivatives markets, the Euronext group provides listing market data, market solutions, custody and its total product offering includes equities, exchange-traded funds, warrants and certificates, bonds, derivatives, commodities and indices. As of 2017, Euronext was the largest in continental Europe with 1,300 issuers representing a €3 trillion market capitalization, Euronext merged with NYSE Group, Inc. on April 4,2007 to form NYSE Euronext. On November 13,2013 Intercontinental Exchange, completed acquisition of NYSE Euronext, in June 2014 Euronext completed an initial public offering making it a standalone company again. In December 2001, Euronext acquired the shares of the London International Financial Futures and Options Exchange, in 2002 the group merged with the Portuguese stock exchange Bolsa de Valores de Lisboa e Porto, renamed Euronext Lisbon. In 2001, Euronext became a company itself after completing its Initial Public Offering. Despite this, NYSE Group and Euronext penned an agreement, subject to shareholder vote. The initial regulatory response by SEC chief Christopher Cox was positive, the new firm, tentatively dubbed NYSE Euronext, would be headquartered in New York City, with European operations and its trading platform run out of Paris. In addition, the two hoped to add Borsa Italiana into the grouping. Deutsche Börse dropped out of the bidding for Euronext on 15 November 2006, a run-up of NYSE Groups stock price in late 2006 made the offering far more attractive to Euronexts shareholders. On 19 December 2006, Euronext shareholders approved the transaction with 98. 2% of the vote, only 1. 8% voted in favour of the Deutsche Börse offer. Jean-François Théodore, the Chief Executive Officer of Euronext, stated that expected the transaction to close within three or four months. Some of the agencies with jurisdiction over the merger had already given approval. NYSE Group shareholders gave their approval on 20 December 2006, the merger was completed on 4 April 2007, forming NYSE Euronext. In 2008 and 2009 Deutsche Börse made two attempts to merge with NYSE Euronext. Both attempts did not enter into advanced steps of merger, in 2011, Deutsche Börse and NYSE Euronext confirmed that they were in advanced merger talks. Such a merger would create the largest exchange in history, the deal was approved by shareholders of NYSE Euronext on July 7,2011, and Deutsche Börse on July 15,2011 and won the antitrust approved by the US regulators on December 22,2011. Deutsche Börse unsuccessfully appealed this decision, in 2012, Euronext announced the creation of Euronext London to offer listing facilities in the UK
4.
Plaisir, Yvelines
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Plaisir is a commune in the Yvelines department in the Île-de-France in north-central France. It is located in the suburbs of Paris,29.5 km from the center of Paris. It borders among others on Élancourt, Trappes and Les-Clayes-sous-Bois and it has a major shopping mall. It is twinned with Lowestoft, England and Bad Aussee, Austria
5.
Net income
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In business, net income is an entitys income minus cost of goods sold, expenses and taxes for an accounting period. In the context of the presentation of financial statements, the IFRS Foundation defines net income as synonymous with profit, net income is a distinct accounting concept from profit but the same as net profit. Net income can also be calculated by adding a companys operating income to non-operating income, net income can be distributed among holders of common stock as a dividend or held by the firm as an addition to retained earnings. As profit and earnings are used synonymously for income, net earnings, often, the term income is substituted for net income, yet this is not preferred due to the possible ambiguity. Net income is called the bottom line because it is typically found on the last line of a companys income statement. The items deducted will typically include tax expense, financing expense, likewise, preferred stock dividends will be subtracted too, though they are not an expense. For a merchandising company, subtracted costs may be the cost of goods sold, sales discounts, for a product company advertising, manufacturing, and design and development costs are included
6.
Aerospace
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Aerospace is the human effort in science, engineering and business to fly in the atmosphere of Earth and surrounding space. Aerospace organisations research, design, manufacture, operate, or maintain aircraft and/or spacecraft, Aerospace activity is very diverse, with a multitude of commercial, industrial and military applications. Aerospace is not the same as airspace, which is the air space directly above a location on the ground. In most industrial countries, the industry is a cooperation of public. Along with these public space programs, many companies produce technical tools and components such as spaceships, some known companies involved in space programs include Boeing, Airbus Group, SpaceX, Lockheed Martin, MacDonald Dettwiler and Northrop Grumman. These companies are involved in other areas of aerospace such as the construction of aircraft. Modern aerospace began with George Cayley in 1799, Cayley proposed an aircraft with a fixed wing and a horizontal and vertical tail, defining characteristics of the modern airplane. Airmen like Otto Lilienthal, who introduced cambered airfoils in 1891, the Wright brothers were interested in Lilienthals work and read several of his publications. They also found inspiration in Octave Chanute, an airman and the author of Progress in Flying Machines, war and science fiction inspired great minds like Konstantin Tsiolkovsky and Wernher von Braun to achieve flight beyond the atmosphere. The launch of Sputnik 1 in October 1957 started the Space Age, in April 1981, the Space Shuttle Columbia launched, the start of regular manned access to orbital space. A sustained human presence in space started with Mir in 1986 and is continued by the International Space Station. Space commercialization and space tourism are more recent focuses in aerospace, Aerospace manufacturing is a high-technology industry that produces aircraft, guided missiles, space vehicles, aircraft engines, propulsion units, and related parts. Most of the industry is geared toward governmental work, for each original equipment manufacturer, the US government has assigned a Commercial and Government Entity code. These codes help to each manufacturer, repair facilities. In the United States, the Department of Defense and the National Aeronautics, others include the very large airline industry. The aerospace industry employed 472,000 wage and salary workers in 2006, most of those jobs were in Washington state and in California, with Missouri, New York and Texas also being important. The leading aerospace manufacturers in the U. S. are Boeing, United Technologies Corporation, SpaceX, Northrop Grumman and these manufacturers are facing an increasing labor shortage as skilled U. S. workers age and retire. In India, Bangalore is a center of the aerospace industry, where Hindustan Aeronautics Limited, the National Aerospace Laboratories
7.
Airplane
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An airplane or aeroplane is a powered, fixed-wing aircraft that is propelled forward by thrust from a jet engine or propeller. Airplanes come in a variety of sizes, shapes, and wing configurations, the broad spectrum of uses for airplanes includes recreation, transportation of goods and people, military, and research. Commercial aviation is a massive industry involving the flying of tens of thousands of daily on airliners. Most airplanes are flown by a pilot on board the aircraft, the Wright brothers invented and flew the first airplane in 1903, recognized as the first sustained and controlled heavier-than-air powered flight. They built on the works of George Cayley dating from 1799, between 1867 and 1896, the German pioneer of human aviation Otto Lilienthal also studied heavier-than-air flight. Following its limited use in World War I, aircraft continued to develop. Airplanes had a presence in all the battles of World War II. The first jet aircraft was the German Heinkel He 178 in 1939, the first jet airliner, the de Havilland Comet, was introduced in 1952. The Boeing 707, the first widely successful commercial jet, was in service for more than 50 years. Aéroplane originally referred just to the wing, as it is a plane moving through the air, in an example of synecdoche, the word for the wing came to refer to the entire aircraft. In the United States and Canada, the airplane is used for powered fixed-wing aircraft. In the United Kingdom and most of the Commonwealth, the aeroplane is usually applied to these aircraft. Many stories from antiquity involve flight, such as the Greek legend of Icarus and Daedalus, and this machine may have been suspended for its flight. Some of the earliest recorded attempts with gliders were those by the 9th-century poet Abbas ibn Firnas, leonardo da Vinci researched the wing design of birds and designed a man-powered aircraft in his Codex on the Flight of Birds. In 1799, George Cayley set forth the concept of the airplane as a fixed-wing flying machine with separate systems for lift, propulsion. Cayley was building and flying models of fixed-wing aircraft as early as 1803, in 1856, Frenchman Jean-Marie Le Bris made the first powered flight, by having his glider LAlbatros artificiel pulled by a horse on a beach. Then Alexander F. Mozhaisky also made some innovative designs, in 1883, the American John J. Montgomery made a controlled flight in a glider. Other aviators who made similar flights at that time were Otto Lilienthal, Percy Pilcher, sir Hiram Maxim built a craft that weighed 3.5 tons, with a 110-foot wingspan that was powered by two 360-horsepower steam engines driving two propellers
8.
Airship
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An airship or dirigible balloon is a type of aerostat or lighter-than-air aircraft that can navigate through the air under its own power. Aerostats gain their lift from large gas bags filled with a gas that is less dense than the surrounding air. In early dirigibles, the gas used was hydrogen, due to its high lifting capacity. Helium gas has almost the same lifting capacity and is not flammable, unlike hydrogen, significant amounts were first discovered in the United States and for a while helium was only used for airships by the United States. Most airships built since the 1960s have used helium, though some have used hot air, the envelope of an airship may form a single gas bag, or may contain a number of internal gas-filled cells. An airship also has engines, crew, and optionally also payload accommodation, the main types of airship are non-rigid, semi-rigid, and rigid. Non-rigid airships, often called blimps, rely on internal pressure to maintain the shape of the airship, semi-rigid airships maintain the envelope shape by internal pressure, but have some form of supporting structure, such as a fixed keel, attached to it. Rigid airships have a structural framework which maintains the shape and carries all structural loads. Rigid airships were first flown by Count Zeppelin and the vast majority of rigid airships built were manufactured by the firm he founded, as a result, rigid airships are called zeppelins. S. Navy helium-filled rigids, the USS Akron and USS Macon respectively, during the pioneer years of aeronautics, terms such as airship, air-ship, air ship and ship of the air meant any kind of navigable or dirigible flying machine. In 1919 Frederick Handley Page was reported as referring to ships of the air, in the 1930s, large intercontinental flying boats were also sometimes referred to as ships of the air or flying-ships. Nowadays the term airship is used only for powered, dirigible balloons, semirigid architecture is the more recent and the late appearance is caused by both advancements about deformable structures and exigiency of reducing weight and volume of the airships. They have a structure that ensure to keep the shape jointly with overpressure of the gas envelope. An aerostat is an aircraft which remain aloft using buoyancy or static lift, Airships are a type of aerostat. The term aerostat has also used to indicate a tethered or moored balloon as opposed to a free-floating balloon. A blimp is a non-rigid aerostat, in American usage it refers specifically to a non-rigid type of dirigible balloon or airship. In British usage it refers to any non-rigid aerostat, including balloons and other kite balloons, having a streamlined shape. The initials LZ, for Luftschiff Zeppelin, usually prefixed their crafts serial identifiers, streamlined Parsifal-shaped rigid airships are usually referred to as Zeppelin, because of the fame that this company has acquired due to the number of airships it produced
9.
Inflatable boats
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An inflatable boat is a lightweight boat constructed with its sides and bow made of flexible tubes containing pressurised gas. Often the transom is rigid, providing a location and structure for mounting an outboard motor, some inflatable boats have been designed to be disassembled and packed into a small volume, so that they can be easily stored and transported to water when needed. The boat, when inflated, is kept rigid crossways by a removable thwart. This feature allows such boats to be used as liferafts for larger boats or aircraft, the most common term for inflatable boats is rubber boat although rubber is usually no longer used in their construction. Other terms used include inflatable dinghy, rubber dinghy, inflatable, inflatable rescue boat, there are ancient carved images of animal skins filled with air being used as one-man floats to cross rivers. These floats were inflated by mouth, sometimes, these images have been wrongly described as ancient scuba. The discovery of the process to vulcanize rubber was made by Charles Goodyear in 1838, in late 1843, Thomas Hancock filed for a UK patent, which was also granted in 1844, after the Goodyear patent had been granted. In 1852, while traveling in England, Charles Goodyear discovered that Thomas Hancocks company was producing vulcanized rubber, the last of the suits were settled in 1855. Vulcanization stabilized the rubber allowing it to be durable and flexible. Shortly thereafter, several people expanded on experimentation of rubber coated fabrics, in 1839 the Duke of Wellington tested the first inflatable pontoons. Lieutenant Peter Halkett, an officer in the Royal Navy designed the Halkett boat in 1845 as the first successful inflatable boat and his first design was made of rubber-impregnated Mackintosh cloth. The boat cloak served as a poncho or cloak until inflated. A special pocket held bellows for inflation, and a blade to turn a walking stick into a paddle, a special umbrella could double as a sail. Although the Admiralty saw no use to which Halketts designs could be put in general naval service, John Franklin bought one to take on the ill-fated 1845 expedition in which the entire expedition party of 129 men and two ships vanished. In his explorations along the Oregon Trail, and the tributaries and forks of the Platte River during the years 1842 and 1843, frémont recorded what may have been the first use of an inflatable rubber boat for travel down rivers and rapids in the Rocky Mountains. The sides were formed by two cylinders, eighteen inches in diameter, connected with others forming the bow and stern. By 1855 there were numerous types of rubber boats in use, some made by Goodyear in the U. S. In 1866, four men crossed the Atlantic Ocean from New York to Britain on a three-tube raft called Nonpareil, from 1900 to 1910, the development of rubber manufacturing enabled attempts at producing circular rubber inflatable boats, similar to modern coracles
10.
Recreational boating
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A yacht /ˈjɒt/ is a recreational boat or ship. In modern use of the term, yachts differ from working ships mainly by their leisure purpose, there are two different classes of yachts, sailing and power boats. With the rise of the steamboat and other types of powerboat, sailing vessels in general came to be perceived as luxury, later the term came to encompass large motor boats for primarily private pleasure purposes as well. Yacht lengths normally range from 10 metres up to dozens of meters, a luxury craft smaller than 12 metres is more commonly called a cabin cruiser or simply a cruiser. A superyacht generally refers to any yacht above 24 m and a megayacht generally refers to any yacht over 50 metres and this size is small in relation to typical cruise liners and oil tankers. A few countries have a special flag worn by recreational boats or ships, although inspired by the national flag, the yacht ensign does not always correspond with the civil or merchant ensign of the state in question. Yacht ensigns differ from merchant ensigns in order to signal that the yacht is not carrying cargo that requires a customs declaration, carrying commercial cargo on a boat with a yacht ensign is deemed to be smuggling in many jurisdictions. Until the 1950s, almost all yachts were made of wood or steel, although wood hulls are still in production, the most common construction material is fibreglass, followed by aluminium, steel, carbon fibre, and ferrocement. The use of wood has changed and is no longer limited to traditional board-based methods, wood is mostly used by hobbyists or wooden boat purists when building an individual boat. Apart from materials like carbon fibre and aramid fibre, spruce veneers laminated with epoxy resins have the best weight-to-strength ratios of all boatbuilding materials. Sailing yachts can range in length from about 6 metres to well over 30 metres. Most privately owned yachts fall in the range of about 7 metres -14 metres, in the United States, sailors tend to refer to smaller yachts as sailboats, while referring to the general sport of sailing as yachting. Within the limited context of racing, a yacht is any sailing vessel taking part in a race. Many modern racing yachts have efficient sail-plans, most notably the Bermuda rig. This capability is the result of a sail-plan and hull design oriented towards this capability, day sailing yachts are usually small, at under 6 metres in length. Sometimes called sailing dinghies, they often have a keel, centreboard. Most day sailing yachts do not have a cabin, as they are designed for hourly or daily use and not for overnight journeys. They may have a cabin, where the front part of the hull has a raised solid roof to provide a place to store equipment or to offer shelter from wind or spray
11.
CNES
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The Centre national détudes spatiales is the French government space agency. Its headquarters are located in central Paris and it is under the supervision of the French Ministries of Defence and it operates from the Toulouse Space Center and Guiana Space Centre, but also has payloads launched from space centres operated by other countries. The president of CNES is Jean-Yves Le Gall, CNES is member of Institute of Space, its Applications and Technologies. CNES benefits from the second largest national budget allocated to space, CNES was established under President Charles de Gaulle in 1961. CNES was responsible for the training of French astronauts, until the last active CNES astronauts transferred to the European Space Agency in 2001. As of January 2015, CNES is working with Germany and a few governments to start a modest research effort with the hope to propose a LOX/methane reusable launch vehicle by mid-2015. If built, flight testing would not start before approximately 2026. Hammaguir missile range built in Algeria,1963 Cats launched into space via Véronique rockets. 1965 First French satellite put in orbit,1969 French Guiana Space Centre completed. Commercial competition in space is fierce, so launch services must be tailored to space operators’ needs, the new versions of Ariane 5 can launch large satellites or perform dual launches while the Vega and Soyuz-2 are small and medium-lift launchers. CNES is taking part in the Galileo navigation programme alongside the European Union, in addition to Spot and the future Pleiades satellites, CNES is working for the defence community as prime contractor for the Helios satellites. France’s contribution to the International Space Station is giving French scientists the opportunity to perform experiments in microgravity. The CNES is studying formation flying, a technique whereby several satellites fly components of a much heavier, CNES is collaborating with other space agencies in a number of projects. Joint missions with NASA result in PARASOL and CALIPSO satellites, CNES plays a major role in the construction and operation of the Soil Moisture and Ocean Salinity satellite. In December 2006, CNES announced that it would publish its UFO archive online by late January or mid-February, most of the 6,000 reports have been filed by the public and airline professionals. Jacques Arnould, an official for the French Space Agency, said that the data had accumulated over a 30-year period and that they were often reported to the Gendarmerie. In the last two decades of the 20th century, France was the country whose government paid UFO investigators, employed by CNESs UFO section GEPAN, later known as SEPRA. On March 22,2007, CNES released its UFO files to the public through its website, the CNES has several tracking stations
12.
Weather balloon
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To obtain wind data, they can be tracked by radar, radio direction finding, or navigation systems. Balloons meant to stay at a constant altitude for long periods of time are known as transosondes, one of the first people to use weather balloons was Léon Teisserenc de Bort, the French meteorologist. Starting in 1896 he launched hundreds of balloons from his observatory in Trappes. These experiments led to his discovery of the tropopause and stratosphere, the balloon itself produces the lift, and is usually made of a highly flexible latex material, though Chloroprene may also be used. The unit that performs the actual measurements and radio transmissions hangs at the end of the string. Specialized radiosondes are used for measuring particular parameters, such as determining the ozone concentration, an example of specialized measurements is found in the Tethered Balloon Measurements in Cyprus in 2003, as part of the Preliminary Evaluation of Air Quality in Cyprus. The balloon is filled with hydrogen due to lower cost. The ascent rate can be controlled by the amount of gas with which the balloon is filled, Weather balloons may reach altitudes of 40 km or more, limited by diminishing pressures causing the balloon to expand to such a degree that it disintegrates. In this instance the instrument package is usually lost, above that altitude sounding rockets are used, and for even higher altitudes satellites are used. Weather balloons are launched around the world for observations used to diagnose current conditions as well as by human forecasters, about 800 locations around the globe do routine releases, twice daily, usually at 0000 UTC and 1200 UTC. Specialized uses also exist, such as for aviation interests, pollution monitoring, photography or videography, field research programs often use mobile launchers from land vehicles as well as ships and aircraft. In recent years weather balloons have also used for scattering human ashes at high-altitude by companies such as Stardust Ashes. The Weather balloon was used to create the fictional entity Rover during production of the 1960s TV series The Prisoner in Portmeirion, Gwynedd, North Wales. This was retained in further scenes shot at MGM Borehamwood UK during 1966-67
13.
Parachute
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A parachute is a device used to slow the motion of an object through an atmosphere by creating drag. Parachutes are usually out of light, strong cloth, originally silk. Parachutes often take the shape of a dome, but shapes may vary including some taking the shape of an inverted dome, depending on the situation, parachutes are used with a variety of loads, including people, food, equipment, space capsules, and bombs. Drogue chutes are used to aid horizontal deceleration of a vehicle, the earliest evidence for the parachute dates back to the Renaissance period. The oldest parachute design appears in a manuscript from 1470s Renaissance Italy. As a safety measure, four straps run from the ends of the rods to a waist belt, shortly after, a more sophisticated parachute was sketched by the polymath Leonardo da Vinci in his Codex Atlanticus dated to ca. Here, the scale of the parachute is in a more favorable proportion to the weight of the jumper, Leonardos canopy was held open by a square wooden frame, which alters the shape of the parachute from conical to pyramidal. It is not known whether the Italian inventor was influenced by the earlier design, the feasibility of Leonardos pyramidal design was successfully tested in 2000 by Briton Adrian Nicholas and again in 2008 by the Swiss skydiver Olivier Vietti-Teppa. The Croatian polymath and inventor Faust Vrančić examined da Vincis parachute sketch and he kept the square frame, but replaced the canopy with a bulging sail-like piece of cloth that he came to realize decelerates the fall more effectively. However, in book, John Wilkins wrote about flying. The modern parachute was invented in the late 18th century by Louis-Sébastien Lenormand in France, Lenormand also sketched his device beforehand. Two years later, in 1785, Lenormand coined the word parachute by hybridizing a Latin prefix para, and chute, also in 1785, Jean-Pierre Blanchard demonstrated it as a means of safely disembarking from a hot-air balloon. Subsequent development of the focused on it becoming more compact. In 1797, André Garnerin made the first descent using such a parachute, Garnerin also invented the vented parachute, which improved the stability of the fall. In 1907 Charles Broadwick demonstrated two key advances in the parachute he used to jump from hot air balloons at fairs and he folded his parachute into a pack he wore on his back. And the parachute was pulled from the pack by a line attached to the balloon. When Broadwick jumped from the balloon, the line became taut, pulled the parachute from the pack. In 1911 a successful test took place with a dummy at the Eiffel tower in Paris, the puppets weight was 75 kg, the parachutes weight was 21 kg
14.
Marine engineering
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Marine engineering includes the engineering of boats, ships, oil rigs and any other marine vessel or structure, as well as oceanographic engineering. It includes but is not limited to power and propulsion plants, machinery, piping, automation and control systems for vehicles of any kind, such as surface ships. The purely mechanical ship operation aspect of engineering has some relationship with naval architecture. In some cases, the responsibilities of each industry collide and is not specific to either field, propellers are examples of one of these types of responsibilities. For naval architects a propeller is a hydrodynamic device, for marine engineers a propeller acts similarly to a pump. Hull vibration, excited by the propeller, is another such area, noise control and shock hardening must be the joint responsibility of both the naval architect and the marine engineer. In fact, most issues caused by machinery are responsibilities in general, not all marine engineering is concerned with moving vessels. Archimedes is traditionally regarded as the first marine engineer, having developed a number of engineering systems in antiquity. Modern marine engineering dates back to the beginning of the Industrial Revolution, in 1712 Thomas Newcomen, a blacksmith, created a steam powered engine to pump water out of mines. In 1807 Robert Fulton successfully used an engine to propel a vessel through the water. Fultons ship used the engine to power a small paddle wheel as its propulsion system. The integration of steam engines into ships was the start of the engineering profession. Before the integration of engines in ships, the maritime professions consisted of deck department jobs and this was because there was no engine for engineers to work on. The type of propulsion used before the engine powered paddle wheel was wind power, paddle wheel ships were the front runner of the industry for the next 30 years till the next type of propulsion came around. Only twelve years after Fulton’s Clermont had her first voyage, the Savannah marked the first sea voyage from America to Europe. Around 50 years later the steam powered paddle wheels had a peak with the creation of the Great Eastern, the Great Eastern was said to be ahead of its time and was destined for failure. Since the 1800s there have many improvements to the design of engines. The maritime industry holds 90% of all international trade, Marine engineers work on more than just engines in ships
15.
Evacuation slide
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An evacuation slide is an inflatable slide used to evacuate an aircraft quickly. An escape slide is required on all aircraft where the door sill height is such that, in the event of an evacuation. Escape slides are packed and held within the structure inside the slide bustle. In many modern planes, to reduce time, evacuation slides deploy automatically when a door is opened in an armed condition. Modern planes often indicate a condition with an indicator light. Many slides are designed to double as life rafts in case of a water landing. Some of these aircraft are the Embraer 190, Boeing 707,717,727 and 737, however, other aircraft require the use of overwing slides for the window exits to ensure that passengers can reach the ground quickly and safely. These include the Boeing 767, Boeing 757, and Airbus A320-series aircraft, window exits usually come in two configurations, An unhinged hatch type exit, where the hatch is unlocked from the inside and pulled into the cabin, whereupon it can be disposed. A manual inflation handle for the slide, if equipped. Most aircraft overwing exits are of this type, a hinged self-disposing exit hatch, that opens automatically outward using a spring when the exit handle is pulled. This design is found only on Boeing 737 NG aircraft. Window exits are equipped with ditching or life lines. These may be attached to the frame of the window exit. One end has a buckle to connect to attachments on the aircrafts wings, the first aircraft evacuation slide was developed and produced by Air Cruisers, founded by James F. Boyle, inventor of the World War II life vest, the Mae West. The patent for the escape chute assembly was submitted by Boyle in 1954. Today Air Cruisers provides slides for over 65% of the aircraft slide market, prior to inflatables, some passenger aircraft utilized canvas type slides which required the crew to undertake an extensive rigging procedure. Canvas type slides are found on some Russian aircraft. There are two types of aircraft evacuation slides, slides and slide/rafts
16.
Arresting gear
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An Arresting gear, or arrestor gear, is a mechanical system used to rapidly decelerate an aircraft as it lands. Arresting gear on aircraft carriers is a component of naval aviation. Similar systems are found at land-based airfields for expeditionary or emergency use. Typical systems consist of steel wire ropes laid across the aircraft landing area. During a normal arrestment, the tailhook engages the wire and the kinetic energy is transferred to hydraulic damping systems attached below the carrier deck. There are other related systems which use nets to catch aircraft wings or landing gear and these barricade and barrier systems are only used for emergency arrestments for aircraft without operable tailhooks. Arresting cable systems were invented by Hugh Robinson and were utilized by Eugene Ely on his first landing on a ship - the armored cruiser USS Pennsylvania and these early systems had cables run through pulleys and attached to dead weights, such as sandbags. More modern arresting cables were tested on HMS Courageous in June 1931, the system is designed to absorb theoretical maximum energy of 47,500,000 foot-pounds at maximum cable run-out. If the aircraft failed to catch a wire, its landing gear would be caught by a 3–4 foot high net known as the barrier. If the aircraft caught a wire upon touchdown, the barrier could be lowered to allow aircraft to taxi over it. The final safety net was the barricade, a large,15 foot high net that prevented landing aircraft from crashing into aircraft parked on the bow. Barriers are no longer in use, although ground based arresting gear are sometimes called barriers, barricades are still in use aboard carriers, but they are only rigged and used in emergencies. A normal arrestment is accomplished when the hook of an incoming aircraft engages one of the deck pendants. The arresting engine brings about a smooth, controlled stop of the landing aircraft, at the completion of the arrestment, the aircraft arresting hook is disengaged from the deck pendant, which is then retracted to its normal position. Modern carriers typically have three or four arresting cables laid across the landing area. All U. S. carriers in the Nimitz-class, along with Enterprise, have four wires, with the exception of the USS Ronald Reagan and USS George H. W. Bush, the Gerald R. Ford-class carriers will also have three. Pilots aim for the second or third wire to reduce the risk of landing short, aircraft coming in to land on a carrier are at approximately 85% of full throttle. At touchdown, the advances the throttles to full power
17.
Telemetry
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Telemetry is an automated communications process by which measurements and other data are collected at remote or inaccessible points and transmitted to receiving equipment for monitoring. The word is derived from Greek roots, tele = remote, systems that need external instructions and data to operate require the counterpart of telemetry, telecommand. Many modern telemetry systems take advantage of the low cost and ubiquity of GSM networks by using SMS to receive, a telemeter is a device used to remotely measure any quantity. It consists of a sensor, a path, and a display, recording. Telemeters are the devices used in telemetry. Electronic devices are used in telemetry and can be wireless or hard-wired. Other technologies are possible, such as mechanical, hydraulic. Telemetry may be commutated to allow the transmission of data streams in a fixed frame. Telemetering information over wire had its origins in the 19th century, One of the first data-transmission circuits was developed in 1845 between the Russian Tsars Winter Palace and army headquarters. In 1874, French engineers built a system of weather and snow-depth sensors on Mont Blanc that transmitted real-time information to Paris, in 1901 the American inventor C. Michalke patented the selsyn, a circuit for sending synchronized rotation information over a distance, in 1906 a set of seismic stations were built with telemetering to the Pulkovo Observatory in Russia. In 1912, Commonwealth Edison developed a system of telemetry to monitor electrical loads on its power grid, the Panama Canal used extensive telemetry systems to monitor locks and water levels. Wireless telemetry made early appearances in the radiosonde, developed concurrently in 1930 by Robert Bureau in France, mochanovs system modulated temperature and pressure measurements by converting them to wireless Morse code. In the US and the USSR, the Messina system was replaced with better systems. Early Soviet missile and space telemetry systems which were developed in the late 1940s used either pulse-position modulation or pulse-duration modulation, in the United States, early work employed similar systems, but were later replaced by pulse-code modulation. Later Soviet interplanetary probes used redundant radio systems, transmitting telemetry by PCM on a decimeter band, telemetry has been used by weather balloons for transmitting meteorological data since 1920. Telemetry is used to transmit drilling mechanics and formation evaluation information uphole, in real time and these services are known as Measurement while drilling and Logging while drilling. Information acquired thousands of feet below ground, while drilling, is sent through the hole to the surface sensors
18.
The Carlyle Group
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The Carlyle Group is an American multinational private equity, alternative asset management and financial services corporation. In 2012, Carlyle completed a $700 million initial public offering, According to a 2015 ranking called the PEI300 based on capital raised over the last five years, Carlyle was ranked No.1 as the largest private equity firm in the world. Carlyles Corporate Private Equity division manages a series of leveraged buyout, Growth capital funds – Carlyle manages 10 active growth capital funds with approximately $6.3 billion in assets under management as of December 31,2016. Carlyles Real Assets division manages 26 active investment carry funds focused on real estate, infrastructure and energy, as of December 31,2016, the Global Market Strategies division had $29 billion of assets under management across several strategies. Loans and Structured Credit funds – Carlyle manages 44 structured credit funds, distressed Credit – Carlyle manages three funds focused on investments in financially distressed companies, with more than $3.4 billion in assets under management as of December 31,2016. Private Credit – Carlyle manages five funds focused on investments in private credit, in 2011, Carlyle acquired AlpInvest and has integrated the business, including its leading fund-of-funds and secondary platforms, significantly expanding Carlyles global asset management business. AlpInvest has offices in New York City, Amsterdam and Hong Kong with over 75 investment professionals, metropolitan constructs and manages U. S. non-U. S. and global real estate portfolios, which include primary and secondary fund interests as well as co-investments. The founding partners named the firm after the Carlyle Hotel in New York City where Norris, Rubenstein, who was a Washington-based lawyer, had worked in the Carter Administration. Norris and DAneillo had previously worked together at Marriott Corporation while Conway was an executive at MCI Communications. Of the founding five partners Rubenstein, Conway and DAneillo remain active in the business while Rosenbaum left in the first year and Norris departed in 1995. Carlyle was founded with $5 million of financial backing from T. Rowe Price, Alex. Brown & Sons, First Interstate Equities, in the late 1980s, Carlyle raised capital on a deal-by-deal basis to pursue leveraged buyout investments including a failed takeover battle for Chi-Chis. The firm raised its first dedicated buyout fund with $100 million of commitments in 1990. In its early years, Carlyle also advised in transactions including a $500 million investment by Prince Al-Waleed bin Talal, Carlyle initially developed a reputation for acquiring businesses related to the defense industry. In 1992, Carlyle completed the acquisition of the Electronics division of General Dynamics Corporation, renamed GDE Systems, Carlyle would later sell the business to Tracor in October 1994. Carlyle acquired Magnavox Electronic Systems, the communications and electronic-warfare systems segment of Magnavox. Carlyle sold Magnavox for approximately $370 million to Hughes Aircraft Company in 1995, Carlyle also invested in Vought Aircraft through a partnership with Northrop Grumman. Carlyles most notable defense industry investment came in October 1997 with its acquisition of United Defense Industries, the $850 million acquisition of United Defense represented Carlyles largest investment to that point. Carlyle was able to complete an IPO of United Defense on the New York Stock Exchange in December 2001 selling a significant portion of its interest in the company, Carlyle completed a sale of its remaining United Defense stock and exited the investment in April 2004
19.
Olivier Zarrouati
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Olivier Zarrouati is a French engineer and business man. Since 2007, he has been Chief Executive Officer of Zodiac Aerospace, Zarrouati, an alumnus of the Ecole Polytechnique, graduated from the École nationale supérieure de laéronautique et de lespace in 1982. Zarrouati started his career as an engineer before joining the French Space agency from 1982 to 1988. In 1989, he joined Matra Marconi Space as project manager for earth observation satellites, in 1998, he led the Development Direction of Intertechnique which was acquired by Zodiac group in 1999. He then served as CEO of Aerosafety’s segment and CEO of the Group’s aeronautical activities, since 2007, he has been Chief Executive Officer of Zodiac Aerospace. In October 2015, he was chosen by the Supervisory Board to serve a term of four years as CEO. Since 2011, Zarrouati has been President of the ISAE SUPAERO Foundation, in 2000, he was appointed Knight of the National Order of Merit and Knight of the Legion of Honor in 2013
20.
Galley (kitchen)
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The galley is the compartment of a ship, train, or aircraft where food is cooked and prepared. It can also refer to a kitchen on a naval base. A galley is the kitchen aboard a vessel, usually laid out in an efficient typical style with longitudinal units and this makes the best use of the usually limited space aboard ships. It also caters for the rolling and heaving nature of ships, for this reason galley stoves are often gimballed, so that the liquid in pans does not spill out. They are also equipped with bars, preventing the cook from falling against the hot stove. A small kitchen on deck was called a caboose or camboose, originating from the Dutch, kombuis, in English it is a defunct term used only for a cooking area that is abovedecks. The Douglas Aircraft DC-3 was the first airplane with a galley for food service. Aircraft in operation today mainly use the airline service trolley system. The first airplane kitchen was invented by Werner Sell of Germany in 1930, in 1955 Sell also began fitting train coaches with kitchens, from 1960 on with the newly developed convection oven. Such kitchens increase storage space by working vertically, with hanging pots, dish racks, strictly, the term refers to a kitchen with the units in two facing lines, but is often used to refer to U-shaped kitchens as well. 10,000 units were installed in Frankfurt, and it was the most successful, Chief cook Chief steward Stewards assistant
21.
In-flight entertainment
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In-flight entertainment refers to the entertainment available to aircraft passengers during a flight. In 1936, the airship Hindenburg offered passengers a piano, lounge, dining room, smoking room, after the Second World War, IFE was delivered in the form of food and drink services, along with an occasional projector movie during lengthy flights. In 1985 the first personal audio player was offered to passengers, during the 1990s the demand for better IFE was a major factor in the design of aircraft cabins. Before then, the most a passenger could expect was a movie projected on a screen at the front of a cabin, now, in most aircraft, private IFE TV screens are offered on most airlines. The current European trend is to implement bring your own device systems that provide intranet connectivity, following this trend, companies such as Immfly are advancing at a fast pace to deliver on-board entertainment on short-haul commercial flights. Design issues for IFE include system safety, cost efficiency, software reliability, hardware maintenance, the in-flight entertainment onboard airlines is frequently managed by content service providers. The first in-flight movie was in 1921 on Aeromarine Airways showing a film called Howdy Chicago to its passengers as the airplane flew around Chicago. The film The Lost World was shown to passengers of an Imperial Airways flight in April 1925 between London and Paris, eleven years later in 1932, the first in-flight television called media event was shown on a Western Air Express Fokker F.10 aircraft. However, it was not until the 1960s that in-flight entertainment was becoming mainstream, in 1961, David Flexer of Inflight Motion Pictures developed the 16mm film system using a 25-inch reel for a wide variety of commercial aircraft. Capable of holding the film, and mounted horizontally to maximize space. In 1961, TWA committed to Flexers technology and was first to debut a film in flight. ”Amerlon Productions. In 1963, AVID Airline Products developed and manufactured the first pneumatic headset used on board the airlines and these early systems consisted of in-seat audio that could be heard with hollow tube headphones. In 1979 pneumatic headsets were replaced by electronic headsets, the electronic headsets were initially available only on selected flights and premium cabins whereas economy class still had to make do with the old pneumatic headsets. The audio was played back through the headsets, in 1971, TRANSCOM developed the 8mm film cassette. Flight attendants could now change movies in-flight and add short subject programming, in the late 1970s and early 1980s, CRT-based projectors began to appear on newer widebody aircraft, such as the Boeing 767. These used LaserDiscs or video cassettes for playback, some airlines upgraded the old film IFE systems to the CRT-based systems in the late 1980s and early 1990s on some of their older widebodies. In 1985, Avicom introduced the first audio player system, based on the Philips Tape Cassette technology, in 1988, the Airvision company introduced the first in-seat audio/video on-demand systems using 2.7 inches LCD technology for Northwest Airlines. The trials, which were run by Northwest Airlines on its Boeing 747 fleet, as a result, this completely replaced the CRT technology
22.
Oxygen
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Oxygen is a chemical element with symbol O and atomic number 8. It is a member of the group on the periodic table and is a highly reactive nonmetal. By mass, oxygen is the third-most abundant element in the universe, after hydrogen, at standard temperature and pressure, two atoms of the element bind to form dioxygen, a colorless and odorless diatomic gas with the formula O2. This is an important part of the atmosphere and diatomic oxygen gas constitutes 20. 8% of the Earths atmosphere, additionally, as oxides the element makes up almost half of the Earths crust. Most of the mass of living organisms is oxygen as a component of water, conversely, oxygen is continuously replenished by photosynthesis, which uses the energy of sunlight to produce oxygen from water and carbon dioxide. Oxygen is too reactive to remain a free element in air without being continuously replenished by the photosynthetic action of living organisms. Another form of oxygen, ozone, strongly absorbs ultraviolet UVB radiation, but ozone is a pollutant near the surface where it is a by-product of smog. At low earth orbit altitudes, sufficient atomic oxygen is present to cause corrosion of spacecraft, the name oxygen was coined in 1777 by Antoine Lavoisier, whose experiments with oxygen helped to discredit the then-popular phlogiston theory of combustion and corrosion. One of the first known experiments on the relationship between combustion and air was conducted by the 2nd century BCE Greek writer on mechanics, Philo of Byzantium. In his work Pneumatica, Philo observed that inverting a vessel over a burning candle, Philo incorrectly surmised that parts of the air in the vessel were converted into the classical element fire and thus were able to escape through pores in the glass. Many centuries later Leonardo da Vinci built on Philos work by observing that a portion of air is consumed during combustion and respiration, Oxygen was discovered by the Polish alchemist Sendivogius, who considered it the philosophers stone. In the late 17th century, Robert Boyle proved that air is necessary for combustion, English chemist John Mayow refined this work by showing that fire requires only a part of air that he called spiritus nitroaereus. From this he surmised that nitroaereus is consumed in both respiration and combustion, Mayow observed that antimony increased in weight when heated, and inferred that the nitroaereus must have combined with it. Accounts of these and other experiments and ideas were published in 1668 in his work Tractatus duo in the tract De respiratione. Robert Hooke, Ole Borch, Mikhail Lomonosov, and Pierre Bayen all produced oxygen in experiments in the 17th and the 18th century but none of them recognized it as a chemical element. This may have been in part due to the prevalence of the philosophy of combustion and corrosion called the phlogiston theory, which was then the favored explanation of those processes. Established in 1667 by the German alchemist J. J. Becher, one part, called phlogiston, was given off when the substance containing it was burned, while the dephlogisticated part was thought to be its true form, or calx. The fact that a substance like wood gains overall weight in burning was hidden by the buoyancy of the combustion products
23.
Newport, Washington
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Newport is a city in, and the county seat of, Pend Oreille County, Washington. The population was 2,126 at the 2010 census, Newport is part of the Spokane Metropolitan Area Newport was given its name in 1890 because it was selected as a landing site for the first steamboat on the Pend Oreille River. Newport was officially incorporated on April 16,1903, the first river bridge was built in 1906, and was replaced in 1926, and again in 1988. On July 14,2015, an explosion took place at Zodiac Aerospace, five people were injured, and people were urged to stay at least 2000 feet from the facility. Newport is located at 48°10′50″N 117°2′51″W at an elevation of 2,160 feet, according to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of 1.07 square miles, all of it land. The town of Oldtown, Idaho is just to the east of Newport, there are no natural or physical barriers between the two towns, and it is strictly a political division, separated by the straight-line state boundary. About one-half mile north of Newport, the Pend Oreille River enters Washington State, the watershed of the Pend Oreille in the Newport-Oldtown area west of the river is extremely limited. This is due to a depression of no more than 50 feet. Unable to flow uphill, the waters form the Little Spokane River. Diamond Lake, WA is about 7 miles to the southwest, as of the census of 2010, there were 2,126 people,874 households, and 506 families residing in the city. The population density was 1,986.9 inhabitants per square mile, there were 954 housing units at an average density of 891.6 per square mile. The racial makeup of the city was 92. 3% White,0. 3% African American,1. 0% Native American,1. 1% Asian,0. 4% Pacific Islander,1. 2% from other races, and 3. 7% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 4. 5% of the population,38. 4% of all households were made up of individuals and 18. 9% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.32 and the family size was 3.04. The median age in the city was 38.8 years. 27. 6% of residents were under the age of 18,7. 6% were between the ages of 18 and 24,21. 4% were from 25 to 44,22. 7% were from 45 to 64, and 20. 7% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the city was 46. 6% male and 53. 4% female, as of the census of 2000, there were 1,921 people,760 households, and 471 families residing in the city. The population density was 1,814.7 people per square mile, there were 820 housing units at an average density of 774.6 per square mile
24.
Washington (state)
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It was admitted to the Union as the 42nd state in 1889. Washington is sometimes referred to as Washington State or the State of Washington to distinguish it from Washington, Washington is the 18th largest state with an area of 71,362 square miles, and the 13th most populous state with over 7 million people. Washington is the second most populous state on the West Coast and in the Western United States, Mount Rainier, an active stratovolcano, is the states highest elevation at almost 14,411 feet and is the most topographically prominent mountain in the contiguous United States. Washington is a leading lumber producer and its rugged surface is rich in stands of Douglas fir, hemlock, ponderosa pine, white pine, spruce, larch, and cedar. Manufacturing industries in Washington include aircraft and missiles, shipbuilding and other equipment, lumber, food processing, metals and metal products, chemicals. Washington has over 1,000 dams, including the Grand Coulee Dam, built for a variety of purposes including irrigation, power, flood control, the Washington Territory was named after George Washington, the first President of the United States. The area was part of a region called the Columbia District after the Columbia River. The area was renamed Washington in order to avoid confusion with the District of Columbia, Washington is the only U. S. state named after a president. To distinguish it from the U. S. capital, which is named for George Washington, Washington is sometimes referred to as Washington State, or, in more formal contexts. Washingtonians and other residents of the Pacific Northwest refer to the state simply as Washington, calling the nations capital Washington, D. C. or, often, Washington is the northwestern-most state of the contiguous United States. Washington is bordered by Oregon to the south, with the Columbia River forming the western part, to the west of Washington lies the Pacific Ocean. The high mountains of the Cascade Range run north-south, bisecting the state, from the Cascade Mountains westward, Western Washington has a mostly marine west coast climate, with mild temperatures and wet winters, autumns and springs, and relatively dry summers. The Cascade Range contains several volcanoes, which reach altitudes significantly higher than the rest of the mountains, from the north to the south, these major volcanoes are Mount Baker, Glacier Peak, Mount Rainier, Mount St. Helens, and Mount Adams. Mount Rainier, the tallest mountain in the state, is 50 miles south of the city of Seattle and it is also covered with more glacial ice than any other peak in the contiguous 48 states. Western Washington also is home of the Olympic Mountains, far west on the Olympic Peninsula and these deep forests, such as the Hoh Rainforest, are among the only temperate rainforests in the continental United States. Eastern Washington – the part of the state east of the Cascades – has a dry climate. It includes large areas of steppe and a few truly arid deserts lying in the rain shadow of the Cascades. Farther east, the climate becomes less arid, with annual rainfall increasing as one goes east to 21.2 inches in Pullman, the Okanogan Highlands and the rugged Kettle River Range and Selkirk Mountains cover much of the northeastern quadrant of the state
25.
United States
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Forty-eight of the fifty states and the federal district are contiguous and located in North America between Canada and Mexico. The state of Alaska is in the northwest corner of North America, bordered by Canada to the east, the state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific Ocean. The U. S. territories are scattered about the Pacific Ocean, the geography, climate and wildlife of the country are extremely diverse. At 3.8 million square miles and with over 324 million people, the United States is the worlds third- or fourth-largest country by area, third-largest by land area. It is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, paleo-Indians migrated from Asia to the North American mainland at least 15,000 years ago. European colonization began in the 16th century, the United States emerged from 13 British colonies along the East Coast. Numerous disputes between Great Britain and the following the Seven Years War led to the American Revolution. On July 4,1776, during the course of the American Revolutionary War, the war ended in 1783 with recognition of the independence of the United States by Great Britain, representing the first successful war of independence against a European power. The current constitution was adopted in 1788, after the Articles of Confederation, the first ten amendments, collectively named the Bill of Rights, were ratified in 1791 and designed to guarantee many fundamental civil liberties. During the second half of the 19th century, the American Civil War led to the end of slavery in the country. By the end of century, the United States extended into the Pacific Ocean. The Spanish–American War and World War I confirmed the status as a global military power. The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 left the United States as the sole superpower. The U. S. is a member of the United Nations, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Organization of American States. The United States is a developed country, with the worlds largest economy by nominal GDP. It ranks highly in several measures of performance, including average wage, human development, per capita GDP. While the U. S. economy is considered post-industrial, characterized by the dominance of services and knowledge economy, the United States is a prominent political and cultural force internationally, and a leader in scientific research and technological innovations. In 1507, the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller produced a map on which he named the lands of the Western Hemisphere America after the Italian explorer and cartographer Amerigo Vespucci
26.
Jacques Cousteau
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Jacques-Yves Cousteau AC was a French naval officer, explorer, conservationist, filmmaker, innovator, scientist, photographer, author and researcher who studied the sea and all forms of life in water. He co-developed the Aqua-lung, pioneered marine conservation and was a member of the Académie française, Cousteau also directed films, most notably the documentary adaptation of the book, The Silent World, which won a Palme dor at the 1956 Cannes Film Festival. He remained the only person to win a Palme dOr for a documentary film, Cousteau was born on 11 June 1910, in Saint-André-de-Cubzac, Gironde, France to Daniel and Élisabeth Cousteau. Cousteau completed his studies at the Collège Stanislas in Paris. In 1930, he entered the École Navale and graduated as a gunnery officer, after an automobile accident cut short his career in naval aviation, Cousteau indulged his interest in the sea. The accident caused him to both his arms and could have even killed him. This caused Cousteau to have to change his plans in becoming a naval pilot, Cousteau also belonged to the information service of the French Navy, and was sent on missions to Shanghai and Japan and in the USSR. On 12 July 1937 he married Simone Melchior, with whom he had two sons, Jean-Michel and Philippe and his sons took part in the adventures of the Calypso. In 1991, one year after his wife Simones death from cancer and they already had a daughter Diane Cousteau and a son Pierre-Yves Cousteau, born during Cousteaus marriage to his first wife. The years of World War II were decisive for the history of diving, after the armistice of 1940, the family of Simone and Jacques-Yves Cousteau took refuge in Megève, where he became a friend of the Ichac family who also lived there. Jacques-Yves Cousteau and Marcel Ichac shared the desire to reveal to the general public unknown and inaccessible places — for Cousteau the underwater world. In 1943, they made the film Épaves, in which used two of the very first Aqua-Lung prototypes. These prototypes were made in Boulogne-Billancourt by the Air Liquide company, following instructions from Cousteau, at that time, he kept his distance from his brother Pierre-Antoine Cousteau, a pen anti-semite who wrote the collaborationist newspaper Je suis partout and who received the death sentence in 1946. However, this was commuted to a life sentence. During the 1940s, Cousteau is credited with improving the design which gave birth to the open-circuit scuba technology used today. In 1943 Cousteau tried out the first prototype aqua-lung which finally made extended underwater exploration possible, a little later it became the GERS, then the COMISMER, and finally more recently the CEPHISMER. In 1947, Chief Petty Officer Maurice Fargues became the first diver to die using an aqualung while attempting a new record with the GERS near Toulon. The small team also undertook the exploration of the Roman wreck of Mahdia and it was the first underwater archaeology operation using autonomous diving, opening the way for scientific underwater archaeology
27.
Paris Air Show
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The Paris Air Show claims to be the worlds calendar-oldest air show. Established in 1909, it is held every odd year at Le Bourget Airport in north Paris. The 2015 Paris Air Show, from 15–21 June 2015, became the 51st, the format is similar to the Farnborough International Airshow in Britain and the ILA Berlin Air Show, both of which are staged in alternate years to the Paris show. The Paris event starts with four days closed to the general public. The Paris Air Show is organised by the French aerospace industrys primary representative body, according to GIFAS, the 2011 Paris show attracted 151,500 professional visitors and 204,000 members of the general public, and 3,250 journalists from 80 countries. It is a commercial event, with a major purpose being to demonstrate military. It claims to be the most prestigious aircraft exposition in the world, major aircraft sales contracts are announced by manufacturers during the show. All major international manufacturers, as well as representatives of the forces of many countries. The Paris Air Show traces its history back to the first decade of the 20th century, in 1908 a section of the Paris Motor Show was dedicated to aircraft. The following year, an air show was held at the Grand Palais from 25 September to 17 October, during which 100,000 visitors turned out to see products. There were four further shows before the First World War, the show restarted in 1919, and from 1924 it was held every two years before being interrupted again by the Second World War. It restarted again in 1946 and since 1949, has held in every odd year. The air show continued to be held at the Grand Palais, in 1953, the show was relocated from the Grand Palais to Le Bourget. Since the 1970s, the show emerged as the international reference of the aeronautical sector. Among major accidents, there were two crashes of Convair B-58 Hustler bombers, in 1961 and 1965, at the Paris Air Show on June 3,1973, the second Tupolev Tu-144 production aircraft crashed during its display. It stalled while attempting a rapid climb, the cause of this accident remains controversial. A Mikoyan MiG-29 crashed during a flight with no loss of life. The then Soviet space shuttle Buran and its aircraft the Antonov An-225 were displayed
28.
Helicopter
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A helicopter is a type of rotorcraft in which lift and thrust are supplied by rotors. This allows the helicopter to take off and land vertically, to hover, and to fly forward, backward and these attributes allow helicopters to be used in congested or isolated areas where fixed-wing aircraft and many forms of VTOL aircraft cannot perform. English language nicknames for helicopter include chopper, copter, helo, heli, Helicopters were developed and built during the first half-century of flight, with the Focke-Wulf Fw 61 being the first operational helicopter in 1936. Some helicopters reached limited production, but it was not until 1942 that a helicopter designed by Igor Sikorsky reached full-scale production, with 131 aircraft built. Though most earlier designs used more than one rotor, it is the single main rotor with anti-torque tail rotor configuration that has become the most common helicopter configuration. Tandem rotor helicopters are also in use due to their greater payload capacity. Coaxial helicopters, tiltrotor aircraft, and compound helicopters are all flying today, quadcopter helicopters pioneered as early as 1907 in France, and other types of multicopter have been developed for specialized applications such as unmanned drones. The earliest references for vertical flight came from China, since around 400 BC, Chinese children have played with bamboo flying toys. This bamboo-copter is spun by rolling a stick attached to a rotor, the spinning creates lift, and the toy flies when released. The 4th-century AD Daoist book Baopuzi by Ge Hong reportedly describes some of the ideas inherent to rotary wing aircraft, designs similar to the Chinese helicopter toy appeared in Renaissance paintings and other works. In the 18th and early 19th centuries Western scientists developed flying machines based on the Chinese toy. It was not until the early 1480s, when Leonardo da Vinci created a design for a machine that could be described as an aerial screw, that any recorded advancement was made towards vertical flight. His notes suggested that he built flying models, but there were no indications for any provision to stop the rotor from making the craft rotate. As scientific knowledge increased and became accepted, people continued to pursue the idea of vertical flight. In July 1754, Russian Mikhail Lomonosov had developed a small coaxial modeled after the Chinese top but powered by a spring device. It was powered by a spring, and was suggested as a method to lift meteorological instruments. Sir George Cayley, influenced by a fascination with the Chinese flying top, developed a model of feathers, similar to that of Launoy and Bienvenu. By the end of the century, he had progressed to using sheets of tin for rotor blades and his writings on his experiments and models would become influential on future aviation pioneers
29.
Spacecraft
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A spacecraft is a vehicle, or machine designed to fly in outer space. Spacecraft are used for a variety of purposes, including communications, earth observation, meteorology, navigation, space colonization, planetary exploration, on a sub-orbital spaceflight, a spacecraft enters space and then returns to the surface, without having gone into an orbit. For orbital spaceflights, spacecraft enter closed orbits around the Earth or around other celestial bodies, robotic spacecraft used to support scientific research are space probes. Robotic spacecraft that remain in orbit around a body are artificial satellites. Only a handful of interstellar probes, such as Pioneer 10 and 11, Voyager 1 and 2, orbital spacecraft may be recoverable or not. By method of reentry to Earth they may be divided in non-winged space capsules, Sputnik 1 was the first artificial satellite. It was launched into an elliptical low Earth orbit by the Soviet Union on 4 October 1957, the launch ushered in new political, military, technological, and scientific developments, while the Sputnik launch was a single event, it marked the start of the Space Age. Apart from its value as a technological first, Sputnik 1 also helped to identify the upper atmospheric layers density and it also provided data on radio-signal distribution in the ionosphere. Pressurized nitrogen in the satellites false body provided the first opportunity for meteoroid detection, Sputnik 1 was launched during the International Geophysical Year from Site No. 1/5, at the 5th Tyuratam range, in Kazakh SSR. The satellite travelled at 29,000 kilometers per hour, taking 96.2 minutes to complete an orbit and this altitude is called the Kármán line. In particular, in the 1940s there were several test launches of the V-2 rocket, as of 2016, only three nations have flown manned spacecraft, USSR/Russia, USA, and China. The first manned spacecraft was Vostok 1, which carried Soviet cosmonaut Yuri Gagarin into space in 1961, there were five other manned missions which used a Vostok spacecraft. The second manned spacecraft was named Freedom 7, and it performed a sub-orbital spaceflight in 1961 carrying American astronaut Alan Shepard to an altitude of just over 187 kilometers, there were five other manned missions using Mercury spacecraft. Other Soviet manned spacecraft include the Voskhod, Soyuz, flown unmanned as Zond/L1, L3, TKS, China developed, but did not fly Shuguang, and is currently using Shenzhou. Except for the shuttle, all of the recoverable manned orbital spacecraft were space capsules. Manned space capsules The International Space Station, manned since November 2000, is a joint venture between Russia, the United States, Canada and several other countries, some reusable vehicles have been designed only for manned spaceflight, and these are often called spaceplanes. The first example of such was the North American X-15 spaceplane, the first reusable spacecraft, the X-15, was air-launched on a suborbital trajectory on July 19,1963. The first partially reusable spacecraft, a winged non-capsule, the Space Shuttle, was launched by the USA on the 20th anniversary of Yuri Gagarins flight
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Cockpit
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A cockpit or flight deck is the area, usually near the front of an aircraft or spacecraft, from which a pilot controls the aircraft. Most modern cockpits are enclosed, except on small aircraft. The cockpit of an aircraft flight instruments on an instrument panel. In most airliners, a separates the cockpit from the aircraft cabin. After the September 11,2001 attacks, all major airlines fortified their cockpits against access by hijackers, the word cockpit was originally a sailing term for the coxswains station in a Royal Navy ship, and later the location of the ships rudder controls. Cockpit first appeared in the English language in the 1580s, a pit for fighting cocks, used in nautical sense for midshipmens compartment below decks, transferred to airplanes and to cars. From about 1935, cockpit came to be used informally to refer to the seat of a car, especially a high performance one. In the US and many countries, however, the term cockpit is also used for airliners. Military biplanes and the first single-engined fighters and attack aircraft also had open cockpits, the largest impediment to having closed cabins was the material the windows were to be made of. Prior to Perspex becoming available in 1933, windows were either safety glass, which was heavy, or cellulose nitrate, in the mid-1920s many aircraft manufacturers began using enclosed cockpits for the first time. Open-cockpit airplanes were almost extinct by the mid-1950s, with the exception of training planes, crop-dusters, Cockpit windows may be equipped with a sun shield. Most cockpits have windows that can be opened when the aircraft is on the ground, nearly all glass windows in large aircraft have an anti-reflective coating, and an internal heating element to melt ice. Smaller aircraft may be equipped with a transparent aircraft canopy, in most cockpits the pilots control column or joystick is located centrally, although in some military fast jets the side-stick is located on the right hand side. In some commercial airliners both pilots use a side-stick located on the side, so Captains side-stick on the left. Except for some helicopters, the seat in the cockpit of an aircraft is the seat used by the co-pilot. The captain or pilot in command sits in the seat, so that he can operate the throttles. The tradition has maintained to this day, with the co-pilot on the right hand side. The layout of the cockpit, especially in the military fast jet, has undergone standardisation, One of the most important developments was the Basic Six pattern, later the Basic T, developed from 1937 onwards by the Royal Air Force, designed to optimise pilot instrument scanning
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Commercial aviation
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Commercial aviation is the part of civil aviation that involves operating aircraft for hire to transport passengers or multiple loads of cargo. There were 17,721 business jets in the fleet at the end of 2011 with about 70% of the fleet in North America. The European market is the next largest, with growing activity in the Middle East, Asia, in 2014 the total airplane billing amounted to just over USD22 billion and 722 business jets were delivered to customers across the globe. After World War II, commercial aviation grew rapidly, using mostly ex-military aircraft to transport people and this growth was accelerated by the glut of heavy and super-heavy bomber airframes like the B-29 and Avro Lancaster that could be converted into commercial aircraft. The DC-3 also made for easier and longer commercial flights, the first commercial jet airliner to fly was the British de Havilland Comet. By 1952, the British state airline BOAC had introduced the Comet into scheduled service, while a technical achievement, the plane suffered a series of highly public failures, as the shape of the windows led to cracks due to metal fatigue. The fatigue was caused by cycles of pressurization and depressurization of the cabin, by the time the problems were overcome, other jet airliner designs had already taken to the skies
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Regional airliner
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A regional airliner or a feederliner is a small airliner that is designed to fly up to 100 passengers on short-haul flights, usually feeding larger carriers airline hubs from small markets. This class of airliners are flown by the regional airlines that are either contracted by or subsidiaries of the larger airlines. Regional airliners are used for trips between smaller towns or from a larger city to a smaller city. Feederliner, commuter, and local service are all terms for the same class of flight operations. In the early days of aviation, most aircraft had a short range so that all airlines were regional in nature. Many of these regional airlines were eventually bought by the larger flag carriers. To keep these short routes economical, the airlines were generally unwilling to spend large amounts of money on new aircraft, also, as new models slowly emerged, older aircraft were put into this service when they were replaced by progressively longer-range designs. In the immediate post-war era these were typically Douglas DC-3s, although even the De Havilland Dragon Rapide biplane airliner remained in service for some time. This hand-me-down process of supplying aircraft continued with designs like the Convair 440, Douglas DC-6, by the mid-1950s, demand for even more economical designs led to the production of the first custom feederliners. These were almost always turboprops, which had fuel economy on par with piston engine designs, often the time between engine overhaul periods was five times that of the best piston engines. Early examples of these include the Fokker F27 Friendship, Avro 748. These designs were so successful that it was to be years before newer designs bettered them enough to make it worthwhile in terms of capital investment to develop. There were a few exceptions, generally tailored to more specific roles. For instance, the Handley Page Jetstream was intended for passengers at much higher speeds. The Fairchild/Swearingen Metro filled a similar niche, by the 1970s the first generation regional airliners were starting to wear out, but there had been little effort in producing new designs for this market. In the early 1980s, the Dash 8s success sparked off development of a number of designs, including the ATR 42/72, Saab 340, Embraer Brasilia. Consequently, there were a large number of aircraft offered by manufacturers in this sector of the market, pushing older 1950s designs from Fokker. Due to the level of competition, production of a number of these types ceased
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Zodiac Seats U.S.
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Zodiac Seats U. S. is an American manufacturer of airline seats headquartered in Gainesville, Texas. Some significant U. S. customers, in addition to being one of the primary seat suppliers for Boeing and Airbus, include Delta Air Lines, American Airlines, and United Airlines. Overseas customers, among others, include Cathay Pacific, Emirates, Etihad Airways, Asiana Airlines. Established as Weber Aircraft, LLC in 1968, the company was previously a division of Kidde Inc. until being bought in 1992 by Air Cruisers Co. of Belmar, NJ, itself a part of Groupe Zodiac. With a main facility exceeding 700,000 square feet and over 3,000 employees, additionally, ZSUS contains satellite facilities in Rancho Cucamonga, California, Chihuahua, Mexico, and Tianjin, China, and service locations in Everett, Washington and Atlanta, Georgia. One product from Zodiac is the 5751 slimline economy class seat and this particular model of seat uses a unique recline mechanism where the seat bucket moves forward while reclining. United Airlines also uses the 5751 on its pre-merger United Boeing 777-200ERs equipped with the International Premium Travel Experience cabin, a new version of the 5751 seat integrates an ultra-lightweight personal in-flight entertainment on-demand video screen into the seat. Delta Air Lines has on installed these seats on their Boeing 747-400 fleet, Cathay Pacific also uses these seats as their new Economy Class seats, replacing the old, fixed shell seats from rival BE Aerospace. For business class, one of Zodiacs newest products include the Cirrus reverse herringbone sleeper suite and this model is also produced by Zodiac Seats France. Cathay Pacific also uses a customized version of this seat as their new business class product and can currently be found in select Boeing 777. Delta Air Lines has installed the version of this model produced by Zodiac Seats U. S. in BusinessElite on their Boeing 747-400 and Airbus A330 fleets
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Gainesville, Texas
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Gainesville is a city in and the county seat of Cooke County, Texas, United States. The population was 16,002 at the 2010 census and it is part of the Texoma region. Founded in 1850, the city of Gainesville was established on a 40-acre tract of land donated by Mary E. Clark, City residents called their new community Liberty, which proved short-lived, as a Liberty, Texas, already existed. It was suggested by one of the settlers of Cooke County, Colonel William Fitzhugh. Gaines, a United States general under whom Fitzhugh had served, had been sympathetic with the Texas Revolution, the first hint of prosperity arrived with the Butterfield Overland Mail stagecoach in September 1858, bringing freight, passengers, and mail. In the decade after the Civil War, Gainesville had its first period of extended growth, Gainesville, only 7 miles from the Oklahoma border, became a supply point for cowboys driving herds north to Kansas. The merchants of Gainesville reaped considerable benefits from the cattle drives. Within 20 years, the population increased from a few hundred to more than 2,000, Gainesville was incorporated on February 17,1873, and by 1890 was established as a commercial and shipping point for area ranchers and farmers. In the late 1870s two factors drastically altered the landscape of North Central Texas. The first of these was barbed wire, sanborn, a regional sales agent for Joseph Gliddens Bar Fence Company of DeKalb, Illinois, traveled to Texas. That autumn, he chose Gainesville as one of his initial distribution points for the newly invented barbed wire which his employer had patented the previous year. On his first visit to Gainesville, he sold ten reels of the wire to the Cleaves, World War II had an enormous impact on Cooke County. Camp Howze, an infantry training camp, was established on some of the best farmland in the county. The construction of the camp helped bring Cooke County out of the Great Depression by providing jobs, the county population doubled and the area boomed. In the last several years, tourism has brought renewed prosperity to the area, the return of Amtrak on June 14,1999, brought Gainesville back full circle to one of the original sources of its growth and success. In the early 1990s, Gainesville had 600 businesses and a population of 14,587, in 2000, the population was 15,538, with the population after the 2010 Census being just over 16,000 people. Gainesville is home to a courthouse with a rotunda topped by stained glass. The 1912 Cooke County Courthouse was designed by the Dallas firm of Lang & Witchell, the courthouse was designed in the Beaux Arts style with some Prairie Style features and influences from famed Chicago architect Louis Sullivan
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United Kingdom
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The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom or Britain, is a sovereign country in western Europe. Lying off the north-western coast of the European mainland, the United Kingdom includes the island of Great Britain, Northern Ireland is the only part of the United Kingdom that shares a land border with another sovereign state—the Republic of Ireland. The Irish Sea lies between Great Britain and Ireland, with an area of 242,500 square kilometres, the United Kingdom is the 78th-largest sovereign state in the world and the 11th-largest in Europe. It is also the 21st-most populous country, with an estimated 65.1 million inhabitants, together, this makes it the fourth-most densely populated country in the European Union. The United Kingdom is a monarchy with a parliamentary system of governance. The monarch is Queen Elizabeth II, who has reigned since 6 February 1952, other major urban areas in the United Kingdom include the regions of Birmingham, Leeds, Glasgow, Liverpool and Manchester. The United Kingdom consists of four countries—England, Scotland, Wales, the last three have devolved administrations, each with varying powers, based in their capitals, Edinburgh, Cardiff and Belfast, respectively. The relationships among the countries of the UK have changed over time, Wales was annexed by the Kingdom of England under the Laws in Wales Acts 1535 and 1542. A treaty between England and Scotland resulted in 1707 in a unified Kingdom of Great Britain, which merged in 1801 with the Kingdom of Ireland to form the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. Five-sixths of Ireland seceded from the UK in 1922, leaving the present formulation of the United Kingdom of Great Britain, there are fourteen British Overseas Territories. These are the remnants of the British Empire which, at its height in the 1920s, British influence can be observed in the language, culture and legal systems of many of its former colonies. The United Kingdom is a country and has the worlds fifth-largest economy by nominal GDP. The UK is considered to have an economy and is categorised as very high in the Human Development Index. It was the worlds first industrialised country and the worlds foremost power during the 19th, the UK remains a great power with considerable economic, cultural, military, scientific and political influence internationally. It is a nuclear weapons state and its military expenditure ranks fourth or fifth in the world. The UK has been a permanent member of the United Nations Security Council since its first session in 1946 and it has been a leading member state of the EU and its predecessor, the European Economic Community, since 1973. However, on 23 June 2016, a referendum on the UKs membership of the EU resulted in a decision to leave. The Acts of Union 1800 united the Kingdom of Great Britain, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland have devolved self-government
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Santa Maria, California
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Santa Maria is a city near the Southern California coast in Santa Barbara County. It is approximately 160 miles northwest of Los Angeles and its estimated 2014 population was 103,410, making it the most populous city in the county and the Santa Maria-Santa Barbara, CA Metro Area. The city is notable for its industry and Santa Maria-style barbecue. Sunset magazine called Santa Maria The Wests Best BBQ Town, the Santa Maria Valley, stretching from the Santa Lucia Mountains toward the Pacific Ocean, was the homeland of the Chumash people for several thousand years. The Native Americans made their homes on the slopes of the hills among the oaks, on the banks of the Santa Maria River among the sycamores. They had unique plank-built boats, called Tomol, which used for ocean fishing. In 1769, the Portolá Expedition passed through the Santa Maria Valley during the first Spanish land exploration up the coast of Las Californias Province. Mission San Luis Obispo de Tolosa was established just north of the valley in 1772, rather than rich soil, white settlers were attracted here by the possibility of free land. In 1821, after the Mexican War of Independence, the lands in Santa Maria Valley were made available for private ownership under a Mexican land grant called Rancho Punta de Laguna. At the end of the Mexican War in 1848, California was ceded to the United States, in the late 19th century, after California gained statehood in 1850, the areas rich soil attracted farmers and other settlers. By the end of the century, the Santa Maria River Valley had become one of the most productive areas in the state. Agriculture is still a key component of the economy for the city, the townsite was recorded in Santa Barbara in 1875. The new town was named Grangerville, then changed to Central City and it became Santa Maria on February 18,1885, since mail was often being sent by mistake to Central City, Colorado. Santa Maria was chosen from the name Juan Pacifico Ontiveros had given to his property 25 years earlier, streets named after the four settlers now form a 6 block square centered at Broadway and Main Street, the center of town. Oil exploration began in 1888, leading to discoveries at the turn of the 20th century. In 1902, Union Oil discovered the large Orcutt Oil Field in the Solomon Hills south of town, two years later, Union Oil had 22 wells in production. Other significant discoveries followed, including the Lompoc Oil Field in 1903, over the next 80 years more large oil fields were found, and thousands of oil wells drilled and put into production. By 1957 there were 1,775 oil wells in operation in the Santa Maria Valley, Santa Maria is located at 34°57′5″N 120°26′0″W
