1.
Precursors of film
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Film as an art form grew out of a long tradition of literature, storytelling, narrative drama, art, mythology, puppetry and shadow play. In addition, the technology of film emerged from developments and achievements much further back in human history, precursors of film are often referred to as pre-cinema, or precinema. This term is disliked by some historians, partly because it seems to devalue the importance of these inventions by presenting them as a step in the development of a later invention. The study of precursors of film is part of a wider. Many of the precursors of film are referred to as philosophical toys. Projection of images can occur naturally when rays of light pass through a small hole and this phenomenon is known as camera obscura or pinhole image. Its oldest known recorded description is found in Chinese Mohist writings dated to circa 400 BCE, however, people have probably witnessed and made use of occurrences of the phenomenon since prehistoric times. Some ancient sightings of gods and spirits, especially in worship, are thought to possibly have been conjured up by means of camera obscura or proto magic lantern projections. In Arab and European science the camera obscura was used in darkened rooms since circa 1000 CE to study light, very occasionally the camera obscura was thought of as an instrument for live projections of performances to entertain an audience inside a darkened room. Purportedly Arnaldus de Villa Nova did so at the end of the 13th century, in 1589 Giambattista della Porta imagined how the camera obscura could be used to project hunting scenes, battles, games or anything desired. Real or artificial forests, rivers, mountains as well as animals could be used for scenes on an outside stage, the use of a lens in the opening of a wall or closed window shutter of a darkened room to project clearer images has been dated back to 1550. In 1572, the oldest known suggestion for the camera to become mobile was described as a wooden hut to be carried around on two wooden poles. More practical solutions followed in the 17th century in the shape of tents and eventually as portable wooden boxes with a viewing pane, the camera obscura became increasingly popular as a drawing and painting aid for artists. Whereas the camera obscura features live projection of any direct input, shadow play can be regarded as a step in this direction. The casting of shadows of actors, dancers and/or hands has probably been practiced since very early prehistoric times, shadow puppetry was hinted at in Platos Allegory of the Cave, but more likely developed in India around 200 BCE. Indian tholu bomalatta shows are performed behind a screen with flat, the trotting horse lamp has been known in China since before 1000 CE. It is a lantern which on the inside has cut-out silhouettes attached to a shaft with a paper vane impeller on top, the silhouettes are projected on the thin paper sides of the lantern and appear to chase each other. Some versions showed more motion with the heads, feet or hands of figures connected with iron wire to an extra inner layer
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Animation
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Animation is the process of making the illusion of motion and the illusion of change by means of the rapid display of a sequence of images that minimally differ from each other. The illusion—as in motion pictures in general—is thought to rely on the phi phenomenon, animators are artists who specialize in the creation of animation. Animation can be recorded with either analogue media, a book, motion picture film, video tape, digital media, including formats with animated GIF, Flash animation. To display animation, a camera, computer, or projector are used along with new technologies that are produced. Animation creation methods include the traditional animation creation method and those involving stop motion animation of two and three-dimensional objects, paper cutouts, puppets and clay figures, Images are displayed in a rapid succession, usually 24,25,30, or 60 frames per second. Computer animation processes generating animated images with the general term computer-generated imagery, 3D animation uses computer graphics, while 2D animation is used for stylistic, low bandwidth and faster real-time renderings. An earthen goblet discovered at the site of the 5, 200-year-old Shahr-e Sūkhté in southeastern Iran, the artifact bears five sequential images depicting a Persian Desert Ibex jumping up to eat the leaves of a tree. They may, of course, refer to Chinese shadow puppets, in the 19th century, the phenakistoscope, zoetrope and praxinoscope were introduced. A thaumatrope is a toy with a small disk with different pictures on each side. The phenakistoscope was invented simultaneously by Belgian Joseph Plateau and Austrian Simon von Stampfer in 1831, the phenakistoscope consists of a disk with a series of images, drawn on radi evenly space around the center of the disk. John Barnes Linnett patented the first flip book in 1868 as the kineograph, the first animated projection was created in France, by Charles-Émile Reynaud, who was a French science teacher. Reynaud created the Praxinoscope in 1877 and the Théâtre Optique in December 1888, on 28 October 1892, he projected the first animation in public, Pauvre Pierrot, at the Musée Grévin in Paris. This film is notable as the first known instance of film perforations being used. His films were not photographed, they were drawn directly onto the transparent strip, in 1900, more than 500,000 people had attended these screenings. Stuart Blackton, who, because of that, is considered the father of American animation, in Europe, the French artist, Émile Cohl, created the first animated film using what came to be known as traditional animation creation methods - the 1908 Fantasmagorie. The film largely consisted of a figure moving about and encountering all manner of morphing objects. There were also sections of live action in which the hands would enter the scene. The film was created by drawing each frame on paper and then shooting each frame onto negative film, the author of the first puppet-animated film was the Russian-born director Wladyslaw Starewicz, known as Ladislas Starevich
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Greek language
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Greek is an independent branch of the Indo-European family of languages, native to Greece and other parts of the Eastern Mediterranean. It has the longest documented history of any living language, spanning 34 centuries of written records and its writing system has been the Greek alphabet for the major part of its history, other systems, such as Linear B and the Cypriot syllabary, were used previously. The alphabet arose from the Phoenician script and was in turn the basis of the Latin, Cyrillic, Armenian, Coptic, Gothic and many other writing systems. Together with the Latin texts and traditions of the Roman world, during antiquity, Greek was a widely spoken lingua franca in the Mediterranean world and many places beyond. It would eventually become the official parlance of the Byzantine Empire, the language is spoken by at least 13.2 million people today in Greece, Cyprus, Italy, Albania, Turkey, and the Greek diaspora. Greek roots are used to coin new words for other languages, Greek. Greek has been spoken in the Balkan peninsula since around the 3rd millennium BC, the earliest written evidence is a Linear B clay tablet found in Messenia that dates to between 1450 and 1350 BC, making Greek the worlds oldest recorded living language. Among the Indo-European languages, its date of earliest written attestation is matched only by the now extinct Anatolian languages, the Greek language is conventionally divided into the following periods, Proto-Greek, the unrecorded but assumed last ancestor of all known varieties of Greek. The unity of Proto-Greek would have ended as Hellenic migrants entered the Greek peninsula sometime in the Neolithic era or the Bronze Age, Mycenaean Greek, the language of the Mycenaean civilisation. It is recorded in the Linear B script on tablets dating from the 15th century BC onwards, Ancient Greek, in its various dialects, the language of the Archaic and Classical periods of the ancient Greek civilisation. It was widely known throughout the Roman Empire, after the Roman conquest of Greece, an unofficial bilingualism of Greek and Latin was established in the city of Rome and Koine Greek became a first or second language in the Roman Empire. The origin of Christianity can also be traced through Koine Greek, Medieval Greek, also known as Byzantine Greek, the continuation of Koine Greek in Byzantine Greece, up to the demise of the Byzantine Empire in the 15th century. Much of the written Greek that was used as the language of the Byzantine Empire was an eclectic middle-ground variety based on the tradition of written Koine. Modern Greek, Stemming from Medieval Greek, Modern Greek usages can be traced in the Byzantine period and it is the language used by the modern Greeks, and, apart from Standard Modern Greek, there are several dialects of it. In the modern era, the Greek language entered a state of diglossia, the historical unity and continuing identity between the various stages of the Greek language is often emphasised. Greek speakers today still tend to regard literary works of ancient Greek as part of their own rather than a foreign language and it is also often stated that the historical changes have been relatively slight compared with some other languages. According to one estimation, Homeric Greek is probably closer to demotic than 12-century Middle English is to modern spoken English, Greek is spoken by about 13 million people, mainly in Greece, Albania and Cyprus, but also worldwide by the large Greek diaspora. Greek is the language of Greece, where it is spoken by almost the entire population
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Phenakistiscope
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The phénakisticope was the first widespread animation device that created a fluent illusion of motion. The phenakistiscope is regarded as one of the first forms of moving media entertainment that paved the way for the motion picture. It can be compared to a GIF animation as it has a short duration, the term phénakisticope was possibly first used by the French company Alphonse Giroux et Compagnie in their application for an import license and this name was used on their box sets. Fellow Parisian publishers Junin & Lazard used the term phenakisticope without the accent, by then, he had an authorized set published first as Phantasmascope and later as Fantascope. In writings and presentations Plateau used both the terms phénakisticope and fantascope, the phénakisticope used a spinning cardboard disc attached vertically to a handle. Arrayed around the center was a series of pictures showing phases of the animation. The user would spin the disc and look through the slits at the discs reflection in a mirror. The scanning of the slits across the images kept them from simply blurring together. When there is the number of images as slots, the images will animate in a fixed position. Fewer images than slots, and the images will drift in the direction to that of the spinning disc. More images than slots, and the images will drift in the direction as the spinning disc. Unlike the zoetrope and other successors, the phénakisticope could only practically be used by one person at a time, the pictures of the phénakisticope became distorted when spun fast enough to produce the illusion of movement, they appeared a bit slimmer and were slightly curved. Sometimes animators drew an opposite distortion in their pictures to compensate this, however, most animations were not intended to give a realistic representation and the distortion isnt very obvious in cartoonish pictures. The distortion and the flicker caused by the slits are not seen in most phénakisticope animations now found online. These are usually created with software and do not replicate the actual viewing experience of a phénakisticope. Some miscalculated modern re-animations also have the rotating, which would appear still when viewed through an actual phénakisticope. This also results in the figures moving across the discs where they were supposed to stand still, most commercially produced discs are lithographic prints that were colored by hand, although multicolor lithography and other printing techniques were used by some manufacturers. Many versions of the phénakisticope used smaller illustrated uncut cardboard discs that had to be placed on a slotted disc
5.
Simon von Stampfer
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Simon Ritter von Stampfer was an Austrian mathematician, surveyor and inventor. His most famous invention is that of the disk which has a claim to be the first device to show moving images. Almost simultaneously similar devices were produced independently in Belgium, and Britain, Simon Ritter von Stampfer was born in Matrei in Osttirol, and was the first son of Bartlmä Stampfer, a weaver. From 1801 he attended the school and in 1804 and moved to the Franciscan Gymnasium in Lienz. From there he went to the Lyceum in Salzburg, to study philosophy, in 1814 in Munich, he passed the state examination and applied there as a teacher. He chose, however, to stay in Salzburg, where he was assistant teacher in mathematics, natural history, physics and he then moved to the Lyceum, where he taught elementary mathematics, physics and applied mathematics. In 1819 he was appointed a professor. In his spare time he made geodetic measurements, astronomical observations, Stampfer was often to be seen in the Benedictine Monastery of Kremsmünster which had numerous pieces of astronomical equipment available. In 1822, von Stampfer married Johanna Wagner and they had a daughter in 1824 and in 1825 a son. After several unsuccessful applications, in Innsbruck, Stampfer was finally promoted to professor of pure mathematics in Salzburg. However, at the Polytechnic Institute in Vienna, he was promoted to the Chair of Practical Geometry. He settled there in December 1825 to replace Franz Josef von Gerstner and he now taught Practical geometry, but was also employed as a physicist and astronomer. He produced a method for the computation of solar eclipses and he was concerned about his astronomical work with lenses and their accuracy and distortion. This led him to the field of optical illusions, in 1828, he developed test methods for telescopes and methods of measurement to determine the Krümmungshalbmesser of lenses and the refractive and dispersion property of the glass. For his work on the foundations of the production of high quality optics. He was so impressed that he conducted experiments with gears. It consists of two disks, One with slits around its circumference, and another with images in frames of motion, when the slitted disk is turned on the same axis as the image disk, the view through the slits gives the impression of a continuously moving image. Alternatively a single disk would be spun in front of a mirror, similar developments were achieved nearly simultaneously by the Belgian Joseph Antoine Ferdinand Plateau and the British William Horner
6.
Joseph Plateau
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Joseph Antoine Ferdinand Plateau was a Belgian physicist. He was one of the first persons to demonstrate the illusion of a moving image, to do this he used counter rotating disks with repeating drawn images in small increments of motion on one and regularly spaced slits in the other. He called this device of 1832 the phenakistiscope and his father, born in Tournai, was a talented flower painter. According to Van der Mensbrugghe, at the age of six the young Joseph Plateau was already able to read, and this made him a child prodigy in those times. While attending the schools, he was particularly impressed by a lesson of physics, enchanted by the seen experiments. At the age of fourteen he lost his father and mother, on 27 August 1840 he married Augustine–Thérèse–Aimée–Fanny Clavareau, they had a son a year later, in 1841. His daughter Alice Plateau married Gustaaf Van der Mensbrugghe in 1871, fascinated by the persistence of luminous impressions on the retina, he performed an experiment in which he gazed directly into the sun for 25 seconds. He lost his eyesight later in his life, and attributed the loss to this experiment, however, this may not be the case, and he may have instead suffered from chronic uveitis. In 1872 he became member of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts. Born in Brussels, he studied at the University of Liège, in 1827 he became a teacher of mathematics at the Atheneum school in Brussels. In 1835, he was appointed Professor of experimental physics in Ghent University, in 1829 Joseph Plateau submitted his doctoral thesis to his mentor Adolphe Quetelet for advice. It contained only 27 pages, but formulated a number of fundamental conclusions. In 1832, Plateau invented an early stroboscopic device, the phenakistoscope and it consisted of two disks, one with small equidistant radial windows, through which the viewer could look, and another containing a sequence of images. When the two disks rotated at the speed, the synchronization of the windows and the images created an animated effect. The projection of stroboscopic photographs, creating the illusion of motion, Plateau also studied the phenomena of capillary action and surface tension. The mathematical problem of existence of a surface with a given boundary is named after him. He conducted extensive studies of soap films and formulated Plateaus laws which describe the structures formed by films in foams. Patterns in nature Plateaus laws Plateaus problem Plateau–Rayleigh instability Soap bubble Stretched grid method De Laey, myth en realiteit, Tijdschrift voor Geneeskunde,58, 915–920 CS1 maint, Unrecognized language
7.
Daedalus
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Alfred Darlington, better known by his stage name Daedelus, is a producer based in Los Angeles, California. He is a part of the groups The Long Lost and Adventure Time and he is affiliated with the internet radio station Dublab. He attended the University of Southern California Thornton School of Music studying Jazz on Double Bass, Daedelus released the album, Invention, on Plug Research in 2002. The Household EP was released on Eastern Developments in 2003 and he also released The Weather, a collaborative album with Busdriver and Radioinactive, on Mush Records that year. He released the solo album, Of Snowdonia, on Plug Research in 2004. It was followed by another album, A Gent Agent. His 2005 album, Exquisite Corpse, featured guest appearances from MF Doom, Mike Ladd, in the following year, he released Denies the Days Demise on Mush Records. His 2008 album, Love to Make Music To, and 2011 album and he released the Righteous Fists of Harmony EP in 2010. Followed by The Light Brigade LP in 2014 both on Brainfeeder and his studio album, Drown Out, was released on Anticon in 2013. 2016 released Labyrinths an LP with vocal features and guest instrumentation on his own imprint Magical Properties, axe Murderation Remixes Throw a Fit Fair Weather Friends Touchtone & FWF Remixes Friends of Friends Vol. M
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Johann Nepomuk Czermak
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Johann Nepomuk Czermak was an Austrian-German physiologist who was a native of Prague. He studied in Prague, Vienna, Breslau and Würzburg, at Breslau he was greatly influenced by the work of physiologist Jan Evangelista Purkyně. He became a professor at Graz in 1855, and proceeded to work at several European universities, including Krakow, just prior to his death in 1873, he founded a physiological institute in Leipzig called the Spectatorium. Czermak was a member of the Austrian Academy of Sciences, Czermak is remembered for his contributions made in the field of laryngology. Along with neurologist Ludwig Turck, he is credited for introducing the laryngoscope into medicine, the laryngoscope was created by Spanish singing instructor Manuel Garcia in 1854 — shortly afterwards, Czermak made modifications to the device, and it soon gained popularity in the medical world. Czermak is also credited for adapting the instrument for examination of the nose and he had a keen interest in phonetics, performing extensive studies on the role of the voice and acoustic conditions of the throat, mouth and nasal cavities in the production of consonants. He conducted research on spatial localisation of skin sensibility, and also demonstrated the influence of the nervus sympathicus in regards to excretion of saliva, for a period of time, the term Hippel-Czermak syndrome was used to reference the condition. Physiologische Studien, three parts, Wien 1854/55 - Physiological studies, Über das Verhalten des weichen Gaumens beim Hervorbringen der reinen Vocale, Wien 1857 - On the behavior of the soft palate at producing the pure vowels. Der Kehlkopfspiegel und seine Verwerthung für Physiologie und Medizin, eine Monographie, Leipzig 1860 - The laryngoscope and its usage for physiology and medicine. Gesammelte Schriften, two volumes, Leipzig 1879 - Collected writings and this article contains text based on a translation of an equivalent article at the German Wikipedia
9.
Brown University
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Brown is the seventh-oldest institution of higher education in the United States and one of the nine Colonial Colleges established before the American Revolution. At its foundation, Brown was the first college in the United States to accept students regardless of their religious affiliation and its engineering program was established in 1847 and was the first in the Ivy League. It was one of the early doctoral-granting U. S. institutions in the late 19th century, adding master, Browns New Curriculum is sometimes referred to in education theory as the Brown Curriculum and was adopted by faculty vote in 1969 after a period of student lobbying. In 1971, Browns coordinate womens institution Pembroke College was fully merged into the university, Pembroke Campus now operates as a place for dorms and classrooms. Undergraduate admissions is very selective, with a rate of 8.3 percent for the class of 2021. The University comprises The College, the Graduate School, Alpert Medical School, the School of Engineering, the School of Public Health, and the School of Professional Studies. The Brown/RISD Dual Degree Program, offered in conjunction with the Rhode Island School of Design, is a course that awards degrees from both institutions. Browns main campus is located in the College Hill Historic District in the city of Providence, the Universitys neighborhood is a federally listed architectural district with a dense concentration of Colonial-era buildings. On the western edge of the campus, Benefit Street contains one of the finest cohesive collections of restored seventeenth-, Browns faculty and alumni include eight Nobel Prize laureates, five National Humanities Medalists, and ten National Medal of Science laureates. Other notable alumni include eight billionaire graduates, a U. S. Supreme Court Chief Justice, to erect a public Building or Buildings for the boarding of the youth & the Residence of the Professors. Stiles and Ellery were co-authors of the Charter of the College two years later, there is further documentary evidence that Stiles was making plans for a college in 1762. On January 20, Chauncey Whittelsey, pastor of the First Church of New Haven, answered a letter from Stiles, should you make any Progress in the Affair of a Colledge, I should be glad to hear of it, I heartily wish you Success therein. Isaac Backus was the historian of the New England Baptists and an inaugural Trustee of Brown, Mr. James Manning, who took his first degree in New-Jersey college in September,1762, was esteemed a suitable leader in this important work. Manning arrived at Newport in July 1763 and was introduced to Stiles, stiless first draft was read to the General Assembly in August 1763 and rejected by Baptist members who worried that the College Board of Fellows would under-represent the Baptists. A revised Charter written by Stiles and Ellery was adopted by the Assembly on March 3,1764, in September 1764, the inaugural meeting of the College Corporation was held at Newport. Governor Stephen Hopkins was chosen chancellor, former and future governor Samuel Ward was vice chancellor, John Tillinghast treasurer, the Charter stipulated that the Board of Trustees be composed of 22 Baptists, five Quakers, five Episcopalians, and four Congregationalists. Of the 12 Fellows, eight should be Baptists—including the College president—and the rest indifferently of any or all Denominations, the Charter was not the grant of King George III, as is sometimes supposed, but rather an Act of the colonial General Assembly. In two particulars, the Charter may be said to be a uniquely progressive document, the oft-repeated statement is inaccurate that Browns Charter alone prohibited a religious test for College membership, other college charters were also liberal in that particular
10.
Milton Bradley Company
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The Milton Bradley Company was an American board game manufacturer established by Milton Bradley in Springfield, Massachusetts, in 1860. In 1920, it absorbed the game production of McLoughlin Brothers, Milton Bradley was taken over by Hasbro, Inc. in 1984. The name was retained as one of Hasbros brands until it was discontinued in the 2000s, Milton Bradley found success making board games. In 1860, Milton Bradley moved to Springfield, Massachusetts, and its graphic design of Abraham Lincoln sold very well until Lincoln grew his beard and rendered the likeness out-of-date. Struggling to find a new way to use his lithography machine, Tapley challenged him to a game, most likely an old English game. Bradley conceived the idea of making a purely American game and he created The Checkered Game of Life, which had players move along a track from Infancy to Happy Old Age, in which the point was to avoid Ruin and reach Happy Old Age. Squares were labeled with moral positions from honor and bravery to disgrace, players used a spinner instead of dice because of the negative association with gambling. By spring of 1861, over 45,000 copies of The Checkered Game of Life had been sold, Bradley became convinced board games were his companys future. When the Civil War broke out in early 1861, Milton Bradley temporarily gave up making board games, however, upon seeing bored soldiers stationed in Springfield, Bradley began producing small games the soldiers could play during their down time. This is regarded as the first travel game in the country and these games included chess, checkers, backgammon, dominoes, and The Checkered Game of Life. They were sold for one dollar a piece to soldiers and charitable organizations that bought them in bulk to distribute, by the 1870s, the company was producing dozens of games and capitalizing on fads. Milton Bradley became the first manufacturer in America to make croquet sets, the sets included wickets, mallets, balls, stakes, and an authoritative set of rules to play by that Bradley himself had created from oral tradition and his own sense of fair play. In 1880, the company began making jigsaw puzzles, in the late 1860s, Bradley became involved in the Kindergarten movement. Deeply invested in the cause, his company began manufacturing educational items such as colored papers, the company was hurt by Bradleys generosity. He gave these materials away free of charge, which cost them, due to the recession of the late 1870s, his investors told him either his kindergarten work must go or they would go. Bradley chose to keep his kindergarten work and his friend George Tapley bought the interest of the lost investors and took over as president of the Milton Bradley Company. The Milton Bradley Company took a new direction in 1869 after Milton Bradley went to hear a lecture about the movement by early education pioneer. Peabody promoted the philosophy of the German scholar Friedrich Froebel, Froebel stated that through education children learn and develops through creative activities
11.
Robert Hallowell Richards
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Robert Hallowell Richards was an American mining engineer, metallurgist, and educator, born at Gardiner, Maine. The laboratories which he established at the Institute were the first of their kind in the world, Richards invented a jet aspirator for chemical and physical laboratories and a prism for stadia surveying. But it was in the field of ore dressing that he especially distinguished. He determined the curves of material settling in water, thereby establishing the principles of sorting ore by means of jigs. He invented separators for Lake Superior copper, Virginia iron, Richards served as president of the American Institute of Mining Engineers in 1886. He was author of more than 100 monographs and articles, but his most notable work is a monumental treatise and he published also a Text Book of Ore Dressing. Richards married Ellen Swallow Richards, the first woman graduate of MIT and they remained married until her death in 1911. Richards married Lillian Jameson Richards on June 8,1912, remaining married until her death on Mar.31,1924 and this article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain, Gilman, D. C. Thurston, H. T. Colby, F. M. eds, Works written by or about Robert Hallowell Richards at Wikisource Works by or about Robert Hallowell Richards at Internet Archive Works by Robert Hallowell Richards at LibriVox
12.
Cubic crystal system
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In crystallography, the cubic crystal system is a crystal system where the unit cell is in the shape of a cube. This is one of the most common and simplest shapes found in crystals and minerals, there are three main varieties of these crystals, Primitive cubic Body-centered cubic, Face-centered cubic Each is subdivided into other variants listed below. Note that although the cell in these crystals is conventionally taken to be a cube. This is related to the fact that in most cubic crystal systems, a classic isometric crystal has square or pentagonal faces. The three Bravais lattices in the crystal system are, The primitive cubic system consists of one lattice point on each corner of the cube. Each atom at a point is then shared equally between eight adjacent cubes, and the unit cell therefore contains in total one atom. The body-centered cubic system has one point in the center of the unit cell in addition to the eight corner points. It has a net total of 2 lattice points per unit cell, Each sphere in a cF lattice has coordination number 12. The face-centered cubic system is related to the hexagonal close packed system. The plane of a cubic system is a hexagonal grid. Attempting to create a C-centered cubic crystal system would result in a simple tetragonal Bravais lattice, there are a total 36 cubic space groups. Other terms for hexoctahedral are, normal class, holohedral, ditesseral central class, a simple cubic unit cell has a single cubic void in the center. Additionally, there are 24 tetrahedral voids located in a square spacing around each octahedral void and these tetrahedral voids are not local maxima and are not technically voids, but they do occasionally appear in multi-atom unit cells. A face-centered cubic unit cell has eight tetrahedral voids located midway between each corner and the center of the cell, for a total of eight net tetrahedral voids. One important characteristic of a structure is its atomic packing factor. This is calculated by assuming all the atoms are identical spheres. The atomic packing factor is the proportion of space filled by these spheres, assuming one atom per lattice point, in a primitive cubic lattice with cube side length a, the sphere radius would be a⁄2 and the atomic packing factor turns out to be about 0.524. Similarly, in a bcc lattice, the atomic packing factor is 0.680, as a rule, since atoms in a solid attract each other, the more tightly packed arrangements of atoms tend to be more common
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Grecian bend
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The Grecian bend was a term applied first to a stooped posture which became fashionable c. 1820, named after the figures seen in the art of ancient Greece. It was also the name of a move introduced to polite society in America just before the American Civil War. The bend was considered daring at the time. The stoop or the silhouette created by the fashion in dress for corsets. Contemporary illustrations often show a woman with a bustle and a very small parasol. The term was given to those who suffered from decompression sickness, or the bends. The name was given because afflicted individuals characteristically arched their backs in the manner as the then popular Grecian bend fashion. There were many songs published with Grecian Bend in their titles, the term Grecian bend appears in the song The Garden Where The Praties Grow by Johnny Patterson
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George Cruikshank
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George Cruikshank was a British caricaturist and book illustrator, praised as the modern Hogarth during his life. His book illustrations for his friend Charles Dickens, and many other authors and his father, Isaac Cruikshank, was one of the leading caricaturists of the late 1790s and Cruikshank started his career as his fathers apprentice and assistant. His older brother, Isaac Robert, also followed in the business as a caricaturist. Cruikshanks early work was caricature, but in 1823, at the age of 31 and he illustrated the first,1823 English translation of Grimms Fairy Tales, published in two volumes as German Popular Stories. On 16 October 1827, he married Mary Ann Walker, two years after her death, on 7 March 1851, he married Eliza Widdison. The two lived at 263 Hampstead Road, North London, upon his death, it was discovered that Cruikshank had fathered 11 illegitimate children with a mistress named Adelaide Attree, his former servant, who lived close to where he lived with his wife. Adelaide was ostensibly married and had taken the married surname Archibold, Cruikshanks early career was renowned for his social caricatures of English life for popular publications. He achieved early success collaborating with William Hone in his political satire The Political House That Jack Built, in the same year he produced the remarkable anti-abolitionist New Union Club. It satirised a dinner party organised by abolitionists with black guests and his first major work was Pierce Egans Life in London. This was followed by The Comic Almanack and Omnibus and he gained notoriety with his political prints that attacked the royal family and leading politicians. In 1820 he received a bribe of £100 for a pledge not to caricature His Majesty in any immoral situation. His work included a personification of England named John Bull who was developed from about 1790 in conjunction with other British satirical artists such as James Gillray, Cruikshank replaced one of his major influences, James Gillray, as Englands most popular satirist. For a generation he delineated Tories, Whigs and Radicals impartially, satirical material came to him from every public event – wars abroad, the enemies of Britain, the frolic, among other qualities, such as the weird and terrible, in which he excelled. For Charles Dickens, Cruikshank illustrated Sketches by Boz, The Mudfog Papers, Cruikshank even acted in Dickenss amateur theatrical company. On 30 December 1871 Cruikshank published a letter in The Times which claimed credit for much of the plot of Oliver Twist, the letter launched a fierce controversy around who created the work. Cruikshank was not the first Dickens illustrator to make such a claim, the friendship between Cruikshank and Dickens soured further when Cruikshank became a fanatical teetotaler in opposition to Dickenss views of moderation. Nightcap and nightdress belonged to a past age and reminded you of Cruickshanks illustrations to the novels of Charles Dickens, in the late 1840s, Cruikshanks focus shifted from book illustration to an obsession with temperance and anti-smoking. Formerly a heavy drinker, he now supported, lectured to, and supplied illustrations for the National Temperance Society, for his efforts he was made vice president of the National Temperance League in 1856
15.
James Clerk Maxwell
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James Clerk Maxwell FRS FRSE was a Scottish scientist in the field of mathematical physics. Maxwells equations for electromagnetism have been called the great unification in physics after the first one realised by Isaac Newton. With the publication of A Dynamical Theory of the Electromagnetic Field in 1865, Maxwell proposed that light is an undulation in the same medium that is the cause of electric and magnetic phenomena. The unification of light and electrical phenomena led to the prediction of the existence of radio waves, Maxwell helped develop the Maxwell–Boltzmann distribution, a statistical means of describing aspects of the kinetic theory of gases. He is also known for presenting the first durable colour photograph in 1861 and his discoveries helped usher in the era of modern physics, laying the foundation for such fields as special relativity and quantum mechanics. Many physicists regard Maxwell as the 19th-century scientist having the greatest influence on 20th-century physics and his contributions to the science are considered by many to be of the same magnitude as those of Isaac Newton and Albert Einstein. In the millennium poll—a survey of the 100 most prominent physicists—Maxwell was voted the third greatest physicist of all time, behind only Newton and Einstein. On the centenary of Maxwells birthday, Einstein described Maxwells work as the most profound and the most fruitful that physics has experienced since the time of Newton. James Clerk Maxwell was born on 13 June 1831 at 14 India Street, Edinburgh, to John Clerk Maxwell of Middlebie, an advocate and his father was a man of comfortable means of the Clerk family of Penicuik, holders of the baronetcy of Clerk of Penicuik. His fathers brother was the 6th Baronet, James was the first cousin of the artist Jemima Blackburn and cousin of the civil engineer William Dyce Cay. They were close friends and Cay acted as his best man when Maxwell married, Maxwells parents met and married when they were well into their thirties, his mother was nearly 40 when he was born. They had had one child, a daughter named Elizabeth. When Maxwell was young his family moved to Glenlair House, which his parents had built on the 1,500 acres Middlebie estate, all indications suggest that Maxwell had maintained an unquenchable curiosity from an early age. By the age of three, everything moved, shone, or made a noise drew the question, whats the go o that. And show me how it doos is never out of his mouth and he also investigates the hidden course of streams and bell-wires, the way the water gets from the pond through the wall. Recognising the potential of the boy, Maxwells mother Frances took responsibility for Jamess early education. At eight he could recite long passages of Milton and the whole of the 119th psalm, indeed, his knowledge of scripture was already very detailed, he could give chapter and verse for almost any quotation from the psalms. His mother was ill with abdominal cancer and, after an unsuccessful operation
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Hermann von Helmholtz
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Hermann Ludwig Ferdinand von Helmholtz was a German physician and physicist who made significant contributions in several scientific fields. The largest German association of institutions, the Helmholtz Association, is named after him. In physics, he is known for his theories on the conservation of energy, work in electrodynamics, chemical thermodynamics, Helmholtzs work is influenced by the philosophy of Johann Gottlieb Fichte and Immanuel Kant. He tried to trace their theories in empirical matters like physiology, as a young man, Helmholtz was interested in natural science, but his father wanted him to study medicine at the Charité because there was financial support for medical students. Trained primarily in physiology, Helmholtz wrote on other topics, ranging from theoretical physics, to the age of the Earth. Helmholtzs first academic position was as a teacher of Anatomy at the Academy of Arts in Berlin in 1848 and he then moved to take a post of associate professor of physiology at the Prussian University of Königsberg, where he was appointed in 1849. In 1855 he accepted a professorship of anatomy and physiology at the University of Bonn. He was not particularly happy in Bonn, however, and three later he transferred to the University of Heidelberg, in Baden, where he served as professor of physiology. In 1871 he accepted his final university position, as professor of physics at the University of Berlin and his first important scientific achievement, an 1847 treatise on the conservation of energy, was written in the context of his medical studies and philosophical background. He discovered the principle of conservation of energy while studying muscle metabolism and he tried to demonstrate that no energy is lost in muscle movement, motivated by the implication that there were no vital forces necessary to move a muscle. This was a rejection of the tradition of Naturphilosophie which was at that time a dominant philosophical paradigm in German physiology. He published his theories in his book Über die Erhaltung der Kraft, in the 1850s and 60s, building on the publications of William Thomson, Helmholtz and William Rankine popularized the idea of the heat death of the universe. In fluid dynamics, Helmholtz made several contributions, including Helmholtzs theorems for vortex dynamics in inviscid fluids, Helmholtz was a pioneer in the scientific study of human vision and audition. He coined the term psychophysics, to capture the distinction between the measurement of physical stimuli and their effect on human perception. The physical sound needs to be increased exponentially in order for equal steps to seem linear, Helmholtz paved the way in experimental studies on the relationship between the physical energy and its appreciation, with the goal in mind to develop psychophysical laws. The sensory physiology of Helmholtz was the basis of the work of Wilhelm Wundt, a student of Helmholtz and he, more explicitly than Helmholtz, described his research as a form of empirical philosophy and as a study of the mind as something separate. Helmholtz had, in his early repudiation of Naturphilosophie, stressed the importance of materialism, in 1851, Helmholtz revolutionized the field of ophthalmology with the invention of the ophthalmoscope, an instrument used to examine the inside of the human eye. Helmholtzs interests at that time were focused on the physiology of the senses
17.
Bill Brand (film artist)
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Bill Brand is an experimental film and video artist, educator, activist and film preservationist. Brands films and videos were first shown at Anthology Film Archives in New York City in 1973 and they have since been screened in the United States and around the world in museums, independent film showcases, colleges and universities, and on television. They have been featured at film festivals including the Berlin International Film Festival, New Directors/New Films Festival, Tribeca Film Festival. In 1980 Brand completed a permanent public art project, Masstransiscope, Masstransiscope was awarded a certificate of merit by the New York City Municipal Art Society in 1982. In disrepair for over 20 years, Masstransiscope was restored in 2008, the piece was named among the top 40 public art works in America for 2009 by the Public Art Network. Masstransiscope was again covered by graffiti during the complete shutdown during Hurricane Sandy. Brand lives in New York City and is professor of film and photography at Hampshire College in Amherst and he also teaches film preservation at Moving Image Archiving and Preservation graduate program at Tisch School of the Arts. Since 1976, he has operated BB Optics, a printing service specializing in 8 mm blow-ups and archival preservation for independent filmmakers, libraries, museums. In 2006, he was named an Anthology Film Archives film preservation honoree and given a month-long retrospective to celebrate BB Optics 30th anniversary. Brands work has also written about in news and journal articles by Janet Maslin, Paul Arthur, J. Hoberman, B. Ruby Rich, Noël Carroll, Brian Frye
18.
Myrtle Avenue (BMT Fourth Avenue Line)
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Myrtle Avenue is an abandoned local station on the Manhattan Bridge subway tracks south of the bridge in Brooklyn, New York City, United States. This underground station, opened on June 22,1915, the Brooklyn-bound platform was removed completely, but the Manhattan-bound platform still exists. This station was a casualty of the rebuild, a new track had to be added on the west side to allow for a grade-separated crossing. The original southbound local track at the platform had to be depressed to a grade to cross under. The northbound platform was left in place but no longer operated for passenger service, there was a plan to build a loop just north of this station to turn back Fourth Avenue local trains from 95th Street. The bellmouths for the loop can be seen just north of this station where the bypass tracks join the bridge tracks that stop at DeKalb Avenue. Myrtle Avenue station was sometimes called Gold Street in some planning documents. In 1980 the Masstransiscope zoetrope artwork by Bill Brand was installed, after falling into a state of disrepair, graffiti was removed in 2008 and the artwork restored. This artwork and the station can be seen by looking out the window of Manhattan-bound B Q trains right before the bridge. Masstransiscope was again covered by graffiti during the complete shutdown during Hurricane Sandy
19.
New York City Subway
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Opened in 1904, the New York City Subway is one of the worlds oldest public transit systems, one of the worlds most used metro systems, and the metro system with the most stations. It offers service 24 hours per day, every day of the year, the New York City Subway is the largest rapid transit system in the world by number of stations, with 472 stations in operation. Stations are located throughout the boroughs of Manhattan, Brooklyn, Queens, the Port Authority Trans-Hudson and the AirTrain JFK, in Manhattan and Queens respectively, accept the subways MetroCard but are not operated by the MTA and do not allow free transfers. Another mass transit service that is not operated by the MTA, the system is also one of the worlds longest. Overall, the system contains 236 miles of routes, translating into 665 miles of track. In 2015, the subway delivered over 1.76 billion rides, averaging approximately 5.7 million daily rides on weekdays and a combined 5.9 million rides each weekend. Of the systems 25 services,22 of them pass through Manhattan, the exceptions being the G train, the Franklin Avenue Shuttle, and the Rockaway Park Shuttle. Large portions of the subway outside Manhattan are elevated, on embankments, or in open cuts, in total, 40% of track is not underground despite the subway moniker. Many lines and stations have both express and local services and these lines have three or four tracks. Normally, the two are used for local trains, while the inner one or two are used for express trains. Stations served by express trains are typically major transfer points or destinations, alfred Ely Beach built the first demonstration for an underground transit system in New York City in 1869 and opened it in February 1870. The tunnel was never extended for political and financial reasons, although extensions had been planned to take the tunnel southward to The Battery, the Great Blizzard of 1888 helped demonstrate the benefits of an underground transportation system. A plan for the construction of the subway was approved in 1894, the first underground line of the subway opened on October 27,1904, almost 36 years after the opening of the first elevated line in New York City, which became the IRT Ninth Avenue Line. The fare was $0.05 and on the first day the trains carried over 150,000 passengers, the oldest structure still in use opened in 1885 as part of the BMT Lexington Avenue Line in Brooklyn and is now part of the BMT Jamaica Line. The oldest right-of-way, which is part of the BMT West End Line near Coney Island Creek, was in use in 1864 as a railroad called the Brooklyn, Bath. By the time the first subway opened, the lines had been consolidated into two privately owned systems, the Brooklyn Rapid Transit Company and the Interborough Rapid Transit Company, the city built most of the lines and leased them to the companies. This required it to be run at cost, necessitating fares up to double the five-cent fare popular at the time, in 1940, the city bought the two private systems. Some elevated lines ceased service immediately while others closed soon after, integration was slow, but several connections were built between the IND and BMT, these now operate as one division called the B Division
20.
Metropolitan Atlanta Rapid Transit Authority
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The Metropolitan Atlanta Rapid Transit Authority or MARTA /ˈmɑːrtə/ is the principal public transport operator in the Atlanta metropolitan area. Formed in 1971 as strictly a bus system, MARTA operates a network of bus routes linked to a transit system consisting of 48 miles of rail track with 38 train stations. It is the eighth-largest rapid transit system in the United States by ridership, MARTA also operates a separate paratransit service for disabled customers. As of 2014, the total daily ridership for the system was 432,900 passengers. MARTA was originally proposed as a transit agency for DeKalb, Fulton, Clayton, Gwinnett. These were the five counties in the Atlanta metropolitan area. MARTA was formed by an act of the Georgia General Assembly in 1965, in the same year, four of the five metropolitan area counties and the City of Atlanta passed a referendum authorizing participation in the system, but the referendum failed in Cobb County. Gwinnett County remains outside of the MARTA system, but in November 2014, Clayton County voters passed a 1% sales tax to join the MARTA system, construction began on MARTAs heavy rail system in 1975, with the first rail service commencing on June 30,1979. The system has since built most of the rail lines, as well as stations in Dunwoody, Sandy Springs. MARTA is composed of heavy rail rapid transit and a bus transit system that operates primarily within the boundaries of Fulton, Clayton. MARTA also serves the airport via a station located next to the main terminal, although Cobb County is not part of the MARTA system, the agency operates one limited bus route to the Cumberland Boulevard Transfer Center. The MARTA system allows bicycles on its trains and buses have room for 2 bikes on racks mounted on the front of the bus. At the airport, bicycles can be locked up in all of the parking decks, in 2007, MARTA had 4,729 full and part-time employees, of whom 1,719 were bus drivers or train operators. Rail and bus operators, the agents, the rail maintenance workers. MARTA has its own department with 300 badge-wearing officers, making it the ninth-largest police department in Georgia. The MARTA rapid rail system has 47.6 miles of route and 38 rail stations located on four lines, the Red Line, Gold Line, Blue Line. The tracks for this system are a combination of elevated, ground-level, no tunnel lining was installed in this station, or the adjacent tunnels. The architects and civil engineers decided to leave these with their rugged gneiss rock walls, the highest station in the MARTA system is the King Memorial Station
21.
Washington Metro
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The Washington Metro, known colloquially as Metro and branded Metrorail, is the heavy rail rapid transit system serving the Washington, D. C. metropolitan area in the United States. It is administered by the Washington Metropolitan Area Transit Authority, which also operates Metrobus service under the Metro name, besides the District, Metro serves several jurisdictions in Maryland and Virginia. In Maryland, Metro provides service to Montgomery and Prince Georges counties, in Virginia, to Arlington and Fairfax counties and the independent city of Alexandria. Combined with its ridership in the independent Virginia cities of Falls Church and Fairfax, the system is currently being expanded into Loudoun County, Virginia. It operates mostly as a subway in the District itself, while most of the tracks are at surface level or elevated. Opened in 1976, the network now includes six lines,91 stations, Metro is the second-busiest rapid transit system in the United States in number of passenger trips, after the New York City Subway. There were 215.3 million trips on Metro in fiscal year 2015, in June 2008, Metro set a monthly ridership record with 19,729,641 trips, or 798,456 per weekday. Fares vary based on the distance traveled, the time of day, Riders enter and exit the system using a proximity card called SmarTrip. Metro also has the distinction of having the longest, single-tier escalator in the Western Hemisphere in the Wheaton station, during the 1960s plans were laid for a massive freeway system in Washington. But the plan met fierce opposition, and was altered to include a Capital Beltway system plus rail line radials, the Beltway received full funding, funding for the ambitious Inner Loop Freeway system was partially reallocated toward construction of the Metro system. In 1960 the federal government created the National Capital Transportation Agency to develop a rail system. In 1966, a bill creating WMATA was passed by the government, the District of Columbia, Virginia. WMATA approved plans for a 98-mile regional system in 1968, the first portion of the system opened March 27,1976, with 4.6 miles available on the Red Line with five stations from Rhode Island Avenue to Farragut North, all in the District of Columbia. Underground stations were built with arches of concrete, highlighted by soft. The name Metro was suggested by Massimo Vignelli, who designed the subway maps for the New York City Subway, the 103-mile, 83-station system was completed with the opening of the Green Line segment to Branch Avenue on January 13,2001. This did not mean the end of the growth of the system, the first in-fill station, NoMa – Gallaudet University on the Red Line between Union Station and Rhode Island Ave-Brentwood, opened November 20,2004. Construction began in March 2009 for an extension to Dulles Airport to be built in two phases, the first phase, five stations connecting East Falls Church to Tysons Corner and Wiehle Avenue in Reston, opened on July 26,2014. Metro construction required billions of dollars, originally provided by Congress under the authority of the National Capital Transportation Act of 1969
22.
Metro Center station
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Metro Center is the central hub station of the Washington Metro rapid transit system in Washington, D. C. Metro Center was one of the original Metro stations, and has been in service since March 27,1976. Metro Center is on the Blue, Orange, Red, and Silver Lines, Metro Center is located in downtown Washington, under an area roughly extending east–west from 11th to 13th Streets Northwest, and north–south from F to H Streets Northwest. Its entrances are on G Street at 11th, 12th, and 13th Streets, the stations only street elevator is on the east side of 12th Street north of G Street. It is the second busiest station in the Metrorail system after Union Station, the mezzanine level of the station contains side platforms for Red Line trains traveling towards Glenmont and towards Shady Grove. Orange Line, Silver Line, and Blue Line trains traveling in both directions share a platform on the stations lower level. A Metro sales office is located on the level of the station on the platform for Glenmont-bound Red Line trains, near the 12th. The Grand Hyatt Washington is connected to Metro Center, as is downtowns only remaining department store, during the mid-20th century, the area was the commercial heart of Washington, housing many department stores, theaters, offices, restaurants, and entertainment venues. It has been redeveloped since. The Shops at National Place is an adjacent two-level dining/shopping complex, the station is located so close to the Gallery Place station that the lights of each station are visible to the other through the tunnel. Plans have long been in the works to add a tunnel to connect Gallery Place–Chinatown with Metro Center. The most recent major development was the completion of a Gallery Place/Chinatown - Metro Center Pedestrian Passageway Tunnel Study in July 2005
23.
Gallery Place station
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Gallery Place is a Washington Metro station in Washington, D. C. on the Green, Red and Yellow Lines. It is a station between the Red Line on the upper level and the Green/Yellow Lines on the lower level. Gallery Place is located in Northwest Washington, with entrances at 7th and F, 7th and H, the stations only street elevator is north of F Street on the west side of 7th Street. The station, which is beneath the Verizon Center, serves that arena, the station is located very close to Metro Center, such that the lights of one are visible down the tunnel from the other. Calvary Baptist Church Fords Theater and Petersen House International Spy Museum J. Edgar Hoover Building Martin Luther King Jr, the opening of the station was delayed by a court order over lack of handicapped access. WMATA provided assurance that such access would be available by June 1,1977, Yellow Line service began on April 30,1983, adding service to the Pentagon and National Airport. An abstract wall sculpture, The Yellow Line by Constance Fleures, was installed in 1989 on the lower platform, Green Line service began in 1991, adding service to U Street. Originally named Gallery Place after the nearby National Portrait Gallery and Smithsonian American Art Museum, in 2000, a sculpture entitled The Glory of the Chinese Descendants by Foon Sham, was installed over the 7th and H Street entrance at the mezzanine level. The sculpture depicts a large Chinese-style fan above a bowl of rice, the station reverted to its original name, Gallery Place, on November 3,2011, with Chinatown listed as a subtitle. This station has been a ground for new features in Metro stations. In 1993, the station was one of the first Metro stations to receive tactile edging on its platforms, since 2004, the station has been the site of testing for new signage. As a result, there is far more signage in this station than most others, including lighted signs, in 2007, red LEDs were tested for the platform edge lights on the upper level. Orange LEDs were tested at the edge on the lower level. Like other downtown stations, Gallery Place has a two-level configuration. This is a result of the Green and Yellow Lines location below 7th Street NW, while the Red Line must bend towards the southeast in order to reach Judiciary Square, plans to add a pedestrian tunnel connecting Gallery Place with Metro Center have long been in the works. The Gallery Place/Chinatown - Metro Center Pedestrian Passageway Tunnel Study was completed in July 2005
24.
PATH (rail system)
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The PATH is operated by, and named after, the Port Authority of New York and New Jersey. PATH trains run 24 hours a day and 7 days a week, the system has a route length of 13.8 miles, not including any route overlap. As of October 2016, PATH had a weekday ridership of 276,417. PATH trains only use tunnels in Manhattan, Hoboken and downtown Jersey City, the tracks cross the Hudson River through century-old cast iron tubes that rest on the river bottom under a thin layer of silt. PATHs route from Grove Street in Jersey City west to Newark runs in open cuts, at grade level, PATH does accept the same pay-per-ride MetroCard used by the New York City Transit system, but it does not accept unlimited ride, reduced fare, or EasyPay MetroCards. The history of PATH predates the New York City Subways first underground line, PATH was originally known as the Hudson & Manhattan Railroad. Although the railroad was first planned in 1874, existing technologies could not safely tunnel under the Hudson River, construction began on the existing tunnels in 1890, but stopped shortly thereafter when funding ran out. Construction resumed in 1900 under the direction of William Gibbs McAdoo, McAdoo later became president of what was known, for many years, as the H&M, Hudson Tubes or McAdoo Tunnels. Haskins plan was to excavate the tunnel, then fill it with compressed air to expel the water and to hold the iron plate lining in place. When the New York & Jersey Tunnel Company resumed construction on the tunnels in 1902, an enormous mechanical shield was pushed through the silt at the bottom of the river. The displaced mud was placed into a chamber, where it was later shoveled into small cars that hauled it to the surface. In some cases, the silt was baked with kerosene torches to facilitate removal of the mud. The southern tunnel of the pair was constructed using the tubular cast iron method. Construction of the tunnels was completed in 1906. A second pair of tunnels was built about 1 1⁄4 miles south of the first pair, construction began in 1906 and was completed in 1909, also using the tubular cast iron method. Each track enjoys its own tunnel, which enables a better ventilation via the piston effect. By contrast, the ends of the tunnels, located underneath Manhattan, employed cut. On July 19,1909, service began between the Hudson Terminal in Lower Manhattan and Exchange Place in Jersey City, through the downtown tubes, the connection between Exchange Place and the junction near Hoboken Terminal opened on August 2,1909
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World Trade Center station (PATH)
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World Trade Center is a terminal station on the PATH system. World Trade Center serves as the terminus of both lines. The station was opened on July 19,1909, as Hudson Terminal, but was torn down, rebuilt as World Trade Center. Following the September 11,2001 attacks, a station opened in 2003. The main station house, the Oculus, opened on March 4,2016, the station currently has six tracks and four island platforms in a basement four stories underground. The new Platform A, next to tracks 1 and 2, Platform B between tracks 2 and 3 opened on May 7,2015. The other two opened on September 8,2016. The current station has an entrance that has been open since the temporary station entered service in November 2003. With the redevelopment of the World Trade Center site, the entrances, the most current entrance to the station is located at Vesey Street, facing Greenwich Street and adjacent to 7 World Trade Center. The temporary entrance is a building on the south side of Vesey Street with a Hudson News outlet. A connection to Brookfield Place was made available since October 27,2013, on August 16,2016, the Westfield World Trade Center entrance opened. Hudson Terminal was built by the Hudson and Manhattan Railroad at the turn of the century and was located between Greenwich, Cortlandt, Church, and Fulton Streets. The Hudson Terminal included two 22-story office buildings located above the station, the terminal was an architectural and engineering marvel of its time, designed with ramps to allow pedestrian traffic to flow in and out of the station quickly and easily. The station was served by two tubes connected by a loop to speed train movements. The loop included five tracks and 3 platforms and was similar to the current arrangement. By 1914, passenger volume at the Hudson Terminal had reached 30,535,500 annually, volume nearly doubled by 1922, with 59,221,354 passengers that year. In the late 1950s, the Port Authority proposed to build a world center in Lower Manhattan along the East River. As a bi-state agency, Port Authority projects required approval from both the states of New Jersey and New York, toward the end of 1961, negotiations with outgoing New Jersey Governor Robert B. Meyner regarding the World Trade Center project reached a stalemate
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Exchange Place station (PATH)
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Exchange Place is a station on the PATH system. The Hudson-Bergen Light Rail has a stop outside the PATH station, the original Exchange Place station opened on July 19,1909 at the western end of the Downtown Hudson Tubes adjacent to Pennsylvania Railroad station and ferry terminal. The above ground entrance and platforms were reburbished in the late 1960s / early 1970s after the Port Authority of New York and New Jersey took over operations of the Hudson and Manhattan Railroad. In the early years of the H&M Railroad, there were a number of incidents, including a derailment on April 26,1942 that resulted in five deaths and over 200 injuries. In that incident, the train operator Louis Vierbucken was charged with manslaughter, court records recount that he began to go faster and faster, disregarding warning signals and curves and then the train derailed at the station. The present-day station entrance pavilion at Exchange Place was constructed at a cost of $66 million, at this time, the surrounding Paulus Hook area was beginning to undergo revitalization with new office building construction. The Exchange Place station was closed as a result of the September 11,2001 attacks, before the attacks, the station served 16,000 passengers daily. The World Trade Center station was crucial, as that station contained a loop that enabled trains to turn around. New trackwork was installed at a cost of million, which included an interlocking to allow the trains to switch tracks. On June 29,2003, the Exchange Place PATH station reopened, restoring services to Newark, Hoboken, on November 23,2003, service was restored to the World Trade Center site, with the reopening of the World Trade Center station. In February 2006, the Transportation Security Administration established a project to test airport-style security screening at the Exchange Place station. The station entrance is located approximately 100 feet west of the former, the station features three 150-foot -long escalators that provide access to the platform level, located 75 feet beneath street level. In 1991, an elevator was installed to make the station accessible for the disabled, the Hudson-Bergen Light Rail began service in April 2000, initially providing connections to Bayonne. The station has two vestibules, each containing one side platform and one track for trains in a given direction, the platforms are connected through several corridors. There are railroad switches at the far end of each platform
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San Francisco
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San Francisco, officially the City and County of San Francisco, is the cultural, commercial, and financial center of Northern California. It is the birthplace of the United Nations, the California Gold Rush of 1849 brought rapid growth, making it the largest city on the West Coast at the time. San Francisco became a consolidated city-county in 1856, after three-quarters of the city was destroyed by the 1906 earthquake and fire, San Francisco was quickly rebuilt, hosting the Panama-Pacific International Exposition nine years later. In World War II, San Francisco was a port of embarkation for service members shipping out to the Pacific Theater. Politically, the city votes strongly along liberal Democratic Party lines, San Francisco is also the headquarters of five major banking institutions and various other companies such as Levi Strauss & Co. Dolby, Airbnb, Weebly, Pacific Gas and Electric Company, Yelp, Pinterest, Twitter, Uber, Lyft, Mozilla, Wikimedia Foundation, as of 2016, San Francisco is ranked high on world liveability rankings. The earliest archaeological evidence of habitation of the territory of the city of San Francisco dates to 3000 BC. Upon independence from Spain in 1821, the became part of Mexico. Under Mexican rule, the system gradually ended, and its lands became privatized. In 1835, Englishman William Richardson erected the first independent homestead, together with Alcalde Francisco de Haro, he laid out a street plan for the expanded settlement, and the town, named Yerba Buena, began to attract American settlers. Commodore John D. Sloat claimed California for the United States on July 7,1846, during the Mexican–American War, montgomery arrived to claim Yerba Buena two days later. Yerba Buena was renamed San Francisco on January 30 of the next year, despite its attractive location as a port and naval base, San Francisco was still a small settlement with inhospitable geography. The California Gold Rush brought a flood of treasure seekers, with their sourdough bread in tow, prospectors accumulated in San Francisco over rival Benicia, raising the population from 1,000 in 1848 to 25,000 by December 1849. The promise of fabulous riches was so strong that crews on arriving vessels deserted and rushed off to the gold fields, leaving behind a forest of masts in San Francisco harbor. Some of these approximately 500 abandoned ships were used at times as storeships, saloons and hotels, many were left to rot, by 1851 the harbor was extended out into the bay by wharves while buildings were erected on piles among the ships. By 1870 Yerba Buena Cove had been filled to create new land, buried ships are occasionally exposed when foundations are dug for new buildings. California was quickly granted statehood in 1850 and the U. S. military built Fort Point at the Golden Gate, silver discoveries, including the Comstock Lode in Nevada in 1859, further drove rapid population growth. With hordes of fortune seekers streaming through the city, lawlessness was common, and the Barbary Coast section of town gained notoriety as a haven for criminals, prostitution, entrepreneurs sought to capitalize on the wealth generated by the Gold Rush
28.
Bay Area Rapid Transit
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Bay Area Rapid Transit is a public transportation system serving the San Francisco Bay Area. The rapid transit elevated and subway system connects San Francisco with cities in Alameda, Contra Costa, BART operates 5 routes on 104 miles of track connecting 45 stations, plus a 3. 2-mile automated guideway transit line to the Oakland International Airport which adds an additional station. A spur line in eastern Contra Costa County will utilize other rail technologies, with an average of 433,000 weekday passengers and 128.5 million annual passengers in fiscal year 2016, BART is the fifth-busiest heavy rail rapid transit system in the United States. The systems acronym is pronounced Bart, like the name, BART is operated by the San Francisco Bay Area Rapid Transit District, formed in 1957. As of 2017, it is being expanded to San Jose with the consecutive Warm Springs, some of the Bay Area Rapid Transit Systems current coverage area was once served by an electrified streetcar and suburban train system called the Key System. This early 20th-century system once had regular trans-bay traffic across the deck of the Bay Bridge. By the mid-1950s, that system had been dismantled in favor of highway travel, a new rapid-transit system was proposed to take the place of the Key System during the late 1940s, and formal planning for it began in the 1950s. Some funding was secured for the BART system in 1959, passenger service began on September 11,1972, initially just between MacArthur and Fremont. All nine Bay Area counties were involved in the planning and envisioned to be connected by BART, before the system began revenue service, serious problems in the design and operation of the Automatic Train Control system were observed. Three engineers working for BART, Max Blankenzee, Robert Bruder, BART management was dismissive of their concerns, so the three took the issue to the board of directors. All but two of the directors voted in February 1972 to support management and reject the safety concerns, management retaliated against the engineers, firing them in March 1972. The IEEE later filed the first amicus brief in its history to support the engineers. The California Society of Professional Engineers reported to the California State Senate in June 1972 that there were serious safety risks with the ATC. Legislative analyst A. Alan Post, opened an investigation immediately, an ATC failure caused the train to run off the end of the elevated track and crash to the ground, injuring four people on-board, and drawing national and international attention. The “Fremont Flyer” led to a redesign of the train controls. The California State Public Utilities Commission imposed stringent oversight over train operations, the legislative analyst issued the first of three “Post Reports” in November 1972. The report was “sharply critical” of BART, finding that the ATC system was unreliable, the ATC program was mismanaged, and “no solution was in sight. ”The report accused BART of paying excessive fees for engineering services. BART’s general manager called the indictment of safety in the Post Report “not only disappointing, telephone calls were placed manually between stations, instead
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New York University
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New York University is a private nonprofit research university based in New York City. Founded in 1831, NYU is considered one of the worlds most influential research universities, University rankings compiled by Times Higher Education, U. S. News & World Report, and the Academic Ranking of World Universities all rank NYU amongst the top 32 universities in the world. NYU is a part of the creativity, energy and vibrancy that is Manhattan, located with its core in Greenwich Village. Among its faculty and alumni are 37 Nobel Laureates, over 30 Pulitzer Prize winners, over 30 Academy Award winners, alumni include heads of state, royalty, eminent mathematicians, inventors, media figures, Olympic medalists, CEOs of Fortune 500 companies, and astronauts. NYU alumni are among the wealthiest in the world, according to The Princeton Review, NYU is consistently considered by students and parents as a Top Dream College. Albert Gallatin, Secretary of Treasury under Thomas Jefferson and James Madison, declared his intention to establish in this immense, a system of rational and practical education fitting and graciously opened to all. A three-day-long literary and scientific convention held in City Hall in 1830 and these New Yorkers believed the city needed a university designed for young men who would be admitted based upon merit rather than birthright or social class. On April 18,1831, an institution was established, with the support of a group of prominent New York City residents from the merchants, bankers. Albert Gallatin was elected as the institutions first president, the university has been popularly known as New York University since its inception and was officially renamed New York University in 1896. In 1832, NYU held its first classes in rented rooms of four-story Clinton Hall, in 1835, the School of Law, NYUs first professional school, was established. American Chemical Society was founded in 1876 at NYU and it became one of the nations largest universities, with an enrollment of 9,300 in 1917. NYU had its Washington Square campus since its founding, the university purchased a campus at University Heights in the Bronx because of overcrowding on the old campus. NYU also had a desire to follow New York Citys development further uptown, NYUs move to the Bronx occurred in 1894, spearheaded by the efforts of Chancellor Henry Mitchell MacCracken. The University Heights campus was far more spacious than its predecessor was, as a result, most of the universitys operations along with the undergraduate College of Arts and Science and School of Engineering were housed there. NYUs administrative operations were moved to the new campus, but the schools of the university remained at Washington Square. In 1914, Washington Square College was founded as the undergraduate college of NYU. In 1935, NYU opened the Nassau College-Hofstra Memorial of New York University at Hempstead and this extension would later become a fully independent Hofstra University. In 1950, NYU was elected to the Association of American Universities, in the late 1960s and early 1970s, financial crisis gripped the New York City government and the troubles spread to the citys institutions, including NYU
30.
Tisch School of the Arts
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The New York University Tisch School of the Arts is a center of study in the performing and media arts. Founded on August 17,1965, Tisch is a ground for artists, scholars of the arts, filmmakers. The school merges the technical training of a school with the academic resources of a major research university to immerse students in their intended artistic disciplines. It is located at 721 Broadway in Manhattan, New York City, NYU has the most alumni working at Broadway theatre. Tisch School of the Arts was founded in order to provide training in theatre and film. The school created additional departments such as dance, theatre design, in recognition of the generosity of the Tisch family, the school was renamed Tisch School of the Arts. Tisch also offers a selection of classes to NYU students not enrolled in any of its programs through the Open Arts curriculum, the Graduate Acting Program offers a three-year MFA that equips acting students with the skills of a working career in theatre and/or film. The Department of the Dance offers training on the graduate and undergraduate level to students preparing for careers as dancers or choreographers, while taking full advantage of the liberal arts resources of the New York University and the cultural resources of the New York City. The Graduate Musical Theater Writing Program is an MFA program specially designed for the major collaborators in the creation of new theater and opera, composers, lyricists. NYU Tisch School of the Arts Graduate Acting Program has gained a reputation for its selectivity. Zelda Fichandler became chair of the program in 1984 and stepped down in 2008, in May 2008, Mark Wing-Davey became chair. Graduate Acting alumni have gone on to achieve many acting accolades, faison Edi Gathegi Jordan Gelber,2000 Enver Gjokaj Matthew Gray Gubler Logan Marshall Green Christopher Guest,1971 Danai Gurira Michael C. Many of the faculty have their own independent of the dance department. The program strives to prepare students for the life of a dancer, preparing them by treating their third year students as a company. Students graduate in three years, hence the schedule which is accelerated in order for dancers to graduate earlier than their peers in other college dance programs. Because of brevity of the program, students attend a six-week summer course following their first. During these summer intensives, six different companies come in a week each and teach students their style of movement and this is an excellent way for students to be introduced to companies and have the chance to get noticed and get to know the different companies in an intimate setting. This is unique to the Tisch Dance Program, and is conducive to introducing dancers into the world of auditions
31.
Parsons School of Design
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Parsons School of Design is a private art and design college located in the Greenwich Village neighborhood of Lower Manhattan in New York City. It is one of the five colleges of The New School, Parsons was the first school in the United States to offer programs in fashion design, advertising, interior design, and graphic design. Parsons offers 13 undergraduate bachelors programs and 17 graduate masters programs and it is currently ranked as the #1 art and design school in the United States and #2 in the world, just behind the Royal College of Art in London. Parsons is a member of the National Association of Schools of Art and Design, First established as the Chase School, the institution was founded in 1896 by the American impressionist painter William Merritt Chase. Chase led a group of Progressives who seceded from the Art Students League of New York in search of a more free, more dramatic. The Chase School changed its name in 1898 to the New York School of Art, a few years later, he became president of the New York School of Art. Anticipating a new wave of the Industrial Revolution, Parsons predicted that art and his vision was borne out in a series of firsts for the School, establishing the first program in Fashion Design, Interior Design, Advertising, and Graphic Design in the United States. In 1909, the school was renamed the New York School of Fine, Parsons became sole director in 1911, a position which he maintained to his death in 1930. William M. Odom, who established the schools Paris Ateliers in 1921, as the modern curriculum developed, many successful designers remained closely tied to the School, and by the mid-1960s, Parsons had become the training ground for Seventh Avenue. In 1970, the School became a division of the New School for Social Research, the campus moved from Sutton Place to Greenwich Village in 1972. The merger with a vigorous, fully accredited university was a source of new funding and energy, in 2005, when the parent institution was renamed The New School, Parsons School of Design was renamed Parsons The New School for Design. As of 2015, the School has been renamed The New Schools Parsons School of Design, like most universities in New York City, Parsons campus is spread among scattered buildings, but the main building is located at 13th Street and 5th Avenue. Many other facilities are in buildings shared by other colleges in The New School, Parsons also has a campus abroad located in Paris’s First Arrondissement, known as Parsons Paris. 2 West 13th Street is most commonly known as the Sheila Johnson Design Center, the main Parsons campus is located at 2 West 13th Street in Greenwich Village in the borough of Manhattan. The renovation of the existing structures first and mezzanine levels was made possible in part by a $7 million gift from New School Trustee, the Urban Quad was designed by Lyn Rice Architects and encompasses a total area of 32,800 square feet. In addition to classrooms, the building includes the Anna-Maria and Stephen Kellen Gallery and Auditorium, the renovated ground floor also provides a new home for the Anna-Maria and Stephen Kellen Archives, a collection of drawings, photographs, letters, and objects documenting 20th-century design. The building hosts the Adam and Sophie Gimbel Design Library, a resource collection supporting art, architecture, the collection consists of approximately 45,000 book volumes,350 periodical titles,70,000 slides and 45,000 picture files. Special collections holdings number over 4,000, including many rare, in 2014 the fashion department moved from its Garment District location, the David M Schwartz Fashion Education Center, to the main campus in Greenwich Village
32.
Kiev Metro
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The Kyiv Metro is a metro system that is the mainstay of Kievs public transport. It was the first rapid transit system in Ukraine and the one built in the Soviet Union. It now has three lines with a length of 67.65 kilometers and 52 stations. The system carries 1.439 million passengers daily, accounting for 38% of Kievs public transport load, in 2013, the metro carried 536.2 million passengers. One of the deepest stations in the world, Arsenalna, is found on the system, following the Bolsheviks victory in the Russian Civil War, Kyiv became only a provincial city and no large-scale proposals to improve the city were drawn. Two decades later all this changed when in 1934, the capital of the Ukrainian SSR was moved from Kharkiv to Kyiv. On July 9,1936, the Presidium of the Kyiv City Council looked at a project by Papazov, the engineer Papazov received a bonus of 1000 rubles for this project from the City of Kiev. Following the terrible destruction suffered by the city in the war and this time the Metro was in the plan and construction began in August 1949. Eleven years later the first 5.2 kilometers segment from the Vokzalna to Dnipro was opened and those five stations formed the central part of what is today known as the Sviatoshynsko-Brovarska Line, which runs from the west to the east of the city. At the same time it extended to Kyivs westernmost residential areas of Sviatoshyn, Construction of the second line began in the early 1970s and the first three stations were opened in 1976. What became known as the Kurenivsko-Chervonoarmiyska Line continued expanding, in two stages it reached Obolon, then the largest residential district, in northern Kyiv. At the same time continued to the southwest with new stations added in 1981-84. Construction of the third, Syretsko-Pecherska Line began in 1981 for the first three station segment to open in 1989 in central Kyiv, in mid late 1990s construction began on expansion to the older Syrets district in the northwest direction with stations opening in 1996,2000 and 2004. In addition some of the stations were deliberately left unfinished and opened later, Pecherska. On December 15,2010 three new stations were opened in the direction of Teremki, on December 27,2010 new station Vystavkovyi Tsentr was opened near the National Expocentre of Ukraine. Subsequent extension is not announced, but will include two branches with five stations in total, the former comprise 20 stations, of which 17 are of pylon type,3 are of column type. Of the 26 sub-surface stations,13 stations are of pillar-trispan type, in addition,6 stations are located above ground, of which four are surface level, and two are flyover. Most of the stations have large vestibules, some on surface level whilst others are interlinked with subways
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Kiev
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Kiev or Kyiv is the capital and largest city of Ukraine, located in the north central part of the country on the Dnieper River. The population in July 2015 was 2,887,974, Kiev is an important industrial, scientific, educational, and cultural centre of Eastern Europe. It is home to many industries, higher education institutions. The city has an infrastructure and highly developed system of public transport. The citys name is said to derive from the name of Kyi, during its history, Kiev, one of the oldest cities in Eastern Europe, passed through several stages of great prominence and relative obscurity. The city probably existed as a centre as early as the 5th century. A Slavic settlement on the trade route between Scandinavia and Constantinople, Kiev was a tributary of the Khazars, until seized by the Varangians in the mid-9th century. Under Varangian rule, the city became a capital of the Kievan Rus, completely destroyed during the Mongol invasion in 1240, the city lost most of its influence for the centuries to come. It was a capital of marginal importance in the outskirts of the territories controlled by its powerful neighbours, first the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, followed by Poland. The city prospered again during the Russian Empires Industrial Revolution in the late 19th century, in 1917, after the Ukrainian National Republic declared independence from the Russian Empire, Kiev became its capital. From 1919 Kiev was an important center of the Armed Forces of South Russia and was controlled by the White Army. From 1921 onwards Kiev was a city of the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic, which was proclaimed by the Red Army, during World War II, the city again suffered significant damage, but quickly recovered in the post-war years, remaining the third largest city of the Soviet Union. During the countrys transformation to an economy and electoral democracy. Kievs armament-dependent industrial output fell after the Soviet collapse, adversely affecting science, Kiev emerged as the most pro-Western region of Ukraine where parties advocating tighter integration with the European Union dominate during elections. As a prominent city with a history, its English name was subject to gradual evolution. The early English spelling was derived from Old East Slavic form Kyjev, the name is associated with that of Kyi, the legendary eponymous founder of the city. Early English sources use various names, including Kiou, Kiow, Kiew, on one of the oldest English maps of the region, Russiae, Moscoviae et Tartariae published by Ortelius the name of the city is spelled Kiou. On the 1650 map by Guillaume de Beauplan, the name of the city is Kiiow, in the book Travels, by Joseph Marshall, the city is referred to as Kiovia
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Ukraine
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Ukraine is currently in territorial dispute with Russia over the Crimean Peninsula which Russia annexed in 2014 but which Ukraine and most of the international community recognise as Ukrainian. Including Crimea, Ukraine has an area of 603,628 km2, making it the largest country entirely within Europe and it has a population of about 42.5 million, making it the 32nd most populous country in the world. The territory of modern Ukraine has been inhabited since 32,000 BC, during the Middle Ages, the area was a key centre of East Slavic culture, with the powerful state of Kievan Rus forming the basis of Ukrainian identity. Following its fragmentation in the 13th century, the territory was contested, ruled and divided by a variety of powers, including Lithuania, Poland, the Ottoman Empire, Austria-Hungary, and Russia. A Cossack republic emerged and prospered during the 17th and 18th centuries, two brief periods of independence occurred during the 20th century, once near the end of World War I and another during World War II. Before its independence, Ukraine was typically referred to in English as The Ukraine, following independence, Ukraine declared itself a neutral state. Nonetheless it formed a limited partnership with the Russian Federation and other CIS countries. In the 2000s, the government began leaning towards NATO, and it was later agreed that the question of joining NATO should be answered by a national referendum at some point in the future. Former President Viktor Yanukovych considered the current level of co-operation between Ukraine and NATO sufficient, and was against Ukraine joining NATO and these events formed the background for the annexation of Crimea by Russia in March 2014, and the War in Donbass in April 2014. On 1 January 2016, Ukraine applied the economic part of the Deep, Ukraine has long been a global breadbasket because of its extensive, fertile farmlands and is one of the worlds largest grain exporters. The diversified economy of Ukraine includes a heavy industry sector, particularly in aerospace. Ukraine is a republic under a semi-presidential system with separate powers, legislative, executive. Its capital and largest city is Kiev, taking into account reserves and paramilitary personnel, Ukraine maintains the second-largest military in Europe after that of Russia. Ukrainian is the language and its alphabet is Cyrillic. The dominant religion in the country is Eastern Orthodoxy, which has strongly influenced Ukrainian architecture, literature, there are different hypotheses as to the etymology of the name Ukraine. According to the older and most widespread hypothesis, it means borderland, while more recently some studies claim a different meaning, homeland or region. The Ukraine now implies disregard for the sovereignty, according to U. S. ambassador William Taylor. Neanderthal settlement in Ukraine is seen in the Molodova archaeological sites include a mammoth bone dwelling
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Mexico City
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Mexico City, or City of Mexico, is the capital and most populous city of Mexico. As an alpha global city, Mexico City is one of the most important financial centers in the Americas and it is located in the Valley of Mexico, a large valley in the high plateaus at the center of Mexico, at an altitude of 2,240 metres. The city consists of sixteen municipalities, the 2009 estimated population for the city proper was approximately 8.84 million people, with a land area of 1,485 square kilometres. The Greater Mexico City has a domestic product of US$411 billion in 2011. The city was responsible for generating 15. 8% of Mexicos Gross Domestic Product, as a stand-alone country, in 2013, Mexico City would be the fifth-largest economy in Latin America—five times as large as Costa Ricas and about the same size as Perus. Mexico’s capital is both the oldest capital city in the Americas and one of two founded by Amerindians, the other being Quito. In 1524, the municipality of Mexico City was established, known as México Tenochtitlán, Mexico City served as the political, administrative and financial center of a major part of the Spanish colonial empire. After independence from Spain was achieved, the district was created in 1824. Ever since, the left-wing Party of the Democratic Revolution has controlled both of them, in recent years, the local government has passed a wave of liberal policies, such as abortion on request, a limited form of euthanasia, no-fault divorce, and same-sex marriage. On January 29,2016, it ceased to be called the Federal District and is now in transition to become the countrys 32nd federal entity, giving it a level of autonomy comparable to that of a state. Because of a clause in the Mexican Constitution, however, as the seat of the powers of the federation, it can never become a state, the city of Mexico-Tenochtitlan was founded by the Mexica people in 1325. According to legend, the Mexicas principal god, Huitzilopochtli indicated the site where they were to build their home by presenting an eagle perched on a cactus with a snake in its beak. Between 1325 and 1521, Tenochtitlan grew in size and strength, eventually dominating the other city-states around Lake Texcoco, when the Spaniards arrived, the Aztec Empire had reached much of Mesoamerica, touching both the Gulf of Mexico and the Pacific Ocean. After landing in Veracruz, Spanish explorer Hernán Cortés advanced upon Tenochtitlan with the aid of many of the native peoples. Cortés put Moctezuma under house arrest, hoping to rule through him, the Aztecs thought the Spaniards were permanently gone, and they elected a new king, Cuitláhuac, but he soon died, the next king was Cuauhtémoc. Cortés began a siege of Tenochtitlan in May 1521, for three months, the city suffered from the lack of food and water as well as the spread of smallpox brought by the Europeans. Cortés and his allies landed their forces in the south of the island, the Spaniards practically razed Tenochtitlan during the final siege of the conquest. Cortés first settled in Coyoacán, but decided to rebuild the Aztec site to erase all traces of the old order and he did not establish a territory under his own personal rule, but remained loyal to the Spanish crown
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Mexico
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Mexico, officially the United Mexican States, is a federal republic in the southern half of North America. It is bordered to the north by the United States, to the south and west by the Pacific Ocean, to the southeast by Guatemala, Belize, and the Caribbean Sea, and to the east by the Gulf of Mexico. Covering almost two million square kilometers, Mexico is the sixth largest country in the Americas by total area, Mexico is a federation comprising 31 states and a federal district that is also its capital and most populous city. Other metropolises include Guadalajara, Monterrey, Puebla, Toluca, Tijuana, pre-Columbian Mexico was home to many advanced Mesoamerican civilizations, such as the Olmec, Toltec, Teotihuacan, Zapotec, Maya and Aztec before first contact with Europeans. In 1521, the Spanish Empire conquered and colonized the territory from its base in Mexico-Tenochtitlan, Three centuries later, this territory became Mexico following recognition in 1821 after the colonys Mexican War of Independence. The tumultuous post-independence period was characterized by instability and many political changes. The Mexican–American War led to the cession of the extensive northern borderlands, one-third of its territory. The Pastry War, the Franco-Mexican War, a civil war, the dictatorship was overthrown in the Mexican Revolution of 1910, which culminated with the promulgation of the 1917 Constitution and the emergence of the countrys current political system. Mexico has the fifteenth largest nominal GDP and the eleventh largest by purchasing power parity, the Mexican economy is strongly linked to those of its North American Free Trade Agreement partners, especially the United States. Mexico was the first Latin American member of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development and it is classified as an upper-middle income country by the World Bank and a newly industrialized country by several analysts. By 2050, Mexico could become the fifth or seventh largest economy. The country is considered both a power and middle power, and is often identified as an emerging global power. Due to its culture and history, Mexico ranks first in the Americas. Mexico is a country, ranking fourth in the world by biodiversity. In 2015 it was the 9th most visited country in the world, Mexico is a member of the United Nations, the World Trade Organization, the G8+5, the G20, the Uniting for Consensus and the Pacific Alliance. Mēxihco is the Nahuatl term for the heartland of the Aztec Empire, namely, the Valley of Mexico, and its people, the Mexica and this became the future State of Mexico as a division of New Spain prior to independence. It is generally considered to be a toponym for the valley became the primary ethnonym for the Aztec Triple Alliance as a result. After New Spain won independence from Spain, representatives decided to name the new country after its capital and this was founded in 1524 on top of the ancient Mexica capital of Mexico-Tenochtitlan
37.
Honda Civic
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The Honda Civic is a line of small cars manufactured by Honda. Originally a subcompact, the Civic has gone through several generational changes, the Civic coupe is still considered a compact car. The Civic currently falls between the Honda Fit and Honda Accord, the first Civic was introduced in July 1972 as a two-door model, followed by a three-door hatchback that September. With an 1169 cc transverse engine and front-wheel drive like the British Mini, however, production of Civic and Civic hybrid for export markets continued. After a period of developing idiosyncratic automobiles such as the lukewarmly received domestic Honda 1300, however, the more conventional Civics release in 1972 immediately changed things, thanks to its economy, reliability and low cost in an era of rising fuel prices. Hondas CVCC technology helped it make it affordable, meeting 1970s, the first generation Honda Civic was introduced on 11 July 1972, but sold as a 1973 model in Japan. The Civic was available as a coupe, both a three- and a hatchback, as well as a five-door station wagon. The Civic was joined by an expansion of the three-door hatchback. The second generation Honda Civic was introduced in June 1979 as a 1980 model and it was larger, had a more angular shape, and came with increased engine power. All Civic engines now used the CVCC design, which added a 3rd valve per cylinder, the base 1335 cc engine made 55 hp, with an optional 1488 cc engine producing 67 hp. Three transmissions were offered, a manual, a five-speed manual. The second generation Civic was offered as a hatchback, a four-door sedan, a five-door hatchback. The third generation was released in September 1983 for the 1984 model year, an additional two-seat coupe style—labeled CRX—was introduced, noted for its compact dimensions and light weight. The third generation Civic saw the introduction of the long running four-cylinder D series engine including a new 1.5 L CVCC engine. 1984 also saw the release of a high-performance Si model for the Japanese market, featuring upgraded suspension, Si models were offered in the US as a 3-door Civic Si hatchback and the CRX Si variant with a 91 horsepower fuel-injected SOHC 12-valve engine. A 4WD engine with different transmission mounts was introduced for the first time in 1984 and it delivered a fuel economy of around 28 mpg highway. The 4WD system was operated until improved in 1987 when the rear wheels would engage automatically once the front wheels lost traction. This new system was called Realtime which used a viscous coupler connecting two propeller shafts between the front and rear axles, the manual transmission featured a synchronized 6th gear, called SL, or Super-Low, which was used for high torque at very low speeds
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Mexico City Metro Line 2
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Mexico City Metro Line 2 is one of the 12 lines of the Mexico City Metro. Line 2 is the second of the network, it is identified by the color blue and it starts at the border of the city with the Estado de México and ends South of the city. It commutes with Line 7 at Tacuba, Line 3 at Hidalgo, Line 8 at Bellas Artes, Line 1 at Pino Suárez, Lines 8 and 9 at Chabacano and it is linked with the Mexico City Light Rail to Xochimilco at the Tasqueña terminal. It used to be served by NC-82 and some NM-83 trains and this line was temporarily served by an NM-02 train printed with landscapes and images of Mexico City. This line has seen the worst accident in Mexico City history when on October 20,1975 when there was a crash between two trains at Metro Viaducto. One train was parked at the station picking up passengers when it was hit by train that did not stop in time. 20 people were killed and several wounded, after this accident, automatic traffic lights were installed in all lines
39.
Skymetro
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The Zurich Airport Skymetro is an underground airport people mover at Zurich Airport in Switzerland. The 1.1 km long connects the airports main Airside Center with its mid-field Terminal E. The line opened in September 2003, and was constructed by the Otis Elevator Company, as of 2010, Skymetro was carrying 6.73 million passengers per year, and is claimed to be the most used cable way in Switzerland. With a cost of 176 million Swiss francs it is also the most expensive cable car system, over time, various films have been shown, including ones based around the fictional character Heidi and the Matterhorn mountain. However, as of late 2012 these films are no longer displayed, instead, two new films have been made for the system. The first of the two new films shows a woman, and her younger son appeared as of late 2012. Construction of the Skymetro tunnels started in 2000 and was completed in 2001, the first test run was undertaken in November 2002, and the line became operational in September 2003. As built, the line used three trains, each made up of two cars, in 2009, the Skymetro was remodelled as part of a construction project known as Zurich 2010, which mainly involved the centralization of Security control. Arriving and departing passengers from the Schengen Area and as well as passengers from non-Schengen airports are segregated and transported in separate cabins, walls in the stations ensure the separation of the tested and untested passengers after the security checks. To allow for this division the trains were expanded from two to three cars, service is provided by a total of nine cars, which operate in three trains of three cars each, with each train carrying up to 157 passengers. Trains can run in a loop configuration, with trains reversing direction at each end onto the opposite track. Alternately a shuttle service can be operated, with a single train shuttling backwards and forwards on one track, the trains can engage with, and switch between cables using hydraulic horizontally movable clamps. The maximum speed of a Skymetro train is 47.9 km/h, media related to Skymetro at Wikimedia Commons
40.
Chronophotography
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Chronophotography is an antique photographic technique from the Victorian era, which captures movement in several frames of print. These prints can be arranged either like animation cels or layered in a single frame. It is a predecessor to cinematography and moving film, involving a series of different cameras, chronophotography is defined as a set of photographs of a moving object, taken for the purpose of recording and exhibiting successive phases of motion. The term chronophotography was coined by French physiologist Étienne-Jules Marey to describe photographs of movement from which measurements could be taken and it is derived from the Greek word χρόνος chrónos combined with photography. Photography is an art and science which was invented and developed beginning in the 1830s, initially, it was used as a documentation device – for portraiture, historical moments, battles in war, and so on. With how rapidly the technological and artistic world began to develop, new uses, with the invention of the camera, art no longer necessarily had to capture life. The camera became the dominant source of accurate depiction of life, as the technology became more sophisticated, so did the activities for which people needed cameras. The earliest Daguerreotype photographers already took multiple shots of a subject, making multiple shots of one subject was also a sensible solution when multiple pictures where needed, since Daguerreotypes could not be reproduced. At least from the early 1840s some photographers used multiple cameras, however, changes in poses or angles between exposures were usually aimed at the most advantageous look for the model. Those were not the slight and regular changes needed for a chronophotographic sequence and he had made the pictures in London in 1843 with a simple multiplier device that allowed successive exposures of parts of Daguerreotype plates in a very short time. Claudet regarded these pictures as curious specimens of photography of little practical use, after the Mayer brothers patented a multiplicateur in 1850 Claudet contested the priority of their invention. In 1853 André-Adolphe-Eugène Disdéri popularized the multiplier through the production of cartes de visite. Improvements in the sensitivity of photographic emulsions eventually made true real-time chronophotography possible, muybridge lined part of a racecourse with a row of cameras that had shutters connected to a series of tripwires, then photographed a horse against a white background as it galloped past. One of the resulting silhouette photographs provided the desired proof, later in the decade, with the benefit of more sensitive photographic plates, he obtained greatly improved results. The images of the horse caused astonishment to the public, as no one had seen such precise documentation of the movement of the animal, muybridge was subsequently commissioned to photograph a variety of other moving subjects. Later, in 1878, Albert Londe was hired as a photographer by neurologist Jean-Martin Charcot. Londe used a camera with nine lenses and intricate timing system to study the physical, over time Londe refined this system to be able to take a sequence of twelve pictures in as little as a tenth of a second. Physicist Étienne-Jules Marey began using the technique to more closely study movement, flight and he soon discovered that by overlapping celluloid prints on top of one another, he was able to see phases of movement and study their relations to each other in a single frame
41.
Strobe light
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A strobe light or stroboscopic lamp, commonly called a strobe, is a device used to produce regular flashes of light. It is one of a number of devices that can be used as a stroboscope, the word originated from the Greek strobos, meaning act of whirling. A typical commercial strobe light has an energy in the region of 10 to 150 joules. Larger strobe lights can be used in “continuous” mode, producing extremely intense illumination, the light source is commonly a xenon flash lamp, or flashtube, which has a complex spectrum and a color temperature of approximately 5,600 kelvins. To obtain colored light, colored gels may be used, strobe lights usually use flashtubes with energy supplied from a capacitor, an energy storage device much like a battery, but capable of charging and releasing energy much faster. Recently, some lights have been found to use rectified mains electricity. In a capacitor-based strobe light, the capacitor is charged up to around 300 V, once the capacitor has been charged, a small amount of power is diverted into a trigger transformer, a small transformer with a high turns ratio. This generates the weak but high voltage required to ionize the xenon gas in a flash tube. An arc is created inside the tube, which acts as a bridge for the much bigger pulse to flow down later, arcs present almost a direct short circuit, allowing the capacitors to quickly release their energy into the arc. This rapidly heats the gas, creating an extremely bright plasma discharge. A strobe without a storage device simply discharges mains voltages across the tube once its fired. This type of strobe requires no charging time and allows for much quicker flash rates, such strobes require a form of current limiting, because as mentioned above, an arc acts as a kind of short circuit. Individual strobe flashes typically only last around 200 microseconds, but can be sustained for greater or lesser periods of time depending on the intended use. Since this stop is only apparent, a point on the rotating body will either appear to move backward or forward, or not move. If the flash occurs equal to the period of rotation the marked point will appear to not move. Any non integer flash setting will make the mark appear to move forward or backward, strobe lighting has also been used to see the movements of the vocal cords in slow motion during speech, a procedure known as video-stroboscopy. A common use of a flash is to optimize a car engines efficiency at a certain rotational period by directing the strobe-light towards a mark on the flywheel on the engines main axle. The strobe-light tool for such ignition timing is called a timing light, other applications are in alarm systems, emergency vehicle lighting, theatrical lighting, and as high-visibility running lights
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Stroboscopic effect
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The stroboscopic effect is a visual phenomenon caused by aliasing that occurs when continuous motion is represented by a series of short or instantaneous samples. It also accounts for the effect, so-called because in video or film. A strobe fountain, a stream of droplets falling at regular intervals lit with a strobe light, is an example of the stroboscopic effect being applied to a cyclic motion that is not rotational. When viewed under light, this is a normal water fountain. When viewed under a light with its frequency tuned to the rate at which the droplets fall. Adjusting the strobe frequency can make the droplets seemingly move slowly up or down, consider the stroboscope as used in mechanical analysis. This may be a light that is fired at an adjustable rate. Furthermore, at a frequency of 60 flashes per second, persistence of vision smooths out the sequence of flashes so that the image is continuous. If the same rotating object is viewed at 61 flashes per second, sixty-one flashes will occur before the object is seen in the same position again, and the series of images will be perceived as if it is rotating backwards once per second. The same could be applied at other frequencies like the 50 Hz characteristic of electric grids of most of countries in the world. In the case of pictures, action is captured as a rapid series of still images. The stroboscopic effect also plays a role in audio playback, compact discs rely on strobing reflections of the laser from the surface of the disc in order to be processed. DVDs and Blu-ray Discs have similar functions, the stroboscopic effect also plays a role for laser microphones. Motion-picture cameras conventionally film at 24 frames per second, although the wheels of a vehicle are not likely to be turning at 24 revolutions per second, suppose each wheel has 12 spokes and rotates at only two revolutions per second. Filmed at 24 frames per second, the spokes in each frame will appear in exactly the same position, hence, the wheel will be perceived to be stationary. Thus, as long as the number of times the wheel rotates per second is factor of 24 and 12, because of the illusion that the stroboscopic effect can give to moving machinery, it is advised that single-phase lighting is avoided. Solutions include deploying the lighting over a full 3-phase supply, or by using high-frequency controllers that drive the lights at safer frequencies, 3D zoetrope Electronic tuner#Strobe tuner https, //www. youtube. com/watch. v=3_vVB9u-07I&feature=youtu. be A clear example of this effect. Interactive Strobe Fountain – lets you adjust the frequency to control the apparent movement of falling droplets
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